_{There is also a Regional Dossier (2024) on the Frisian language in education in the Netherlands.}

• In the language itself: Frysk
• ISO 639-3 standard: fry

UNESCO	Ethnologue	Endangered Languages	Glottlog

^{Click here for a full overview of the language vitality colour codes.}

• Classification: Indo-European → West Germanic → North Sea Germanic → Anglo-Frisian → Frisian → Western Frisian. See Frisian at Glottolog for more information.
• Script: Latin.

Frisian has a standardised spelling, which is under authority of the Province of Fryslân since 1969. The Province commissions the Fryske Akademy to develop and describe the standardised orthography. In 2015, the most recent standardised spelling was adopted by the Province of Fryslan. This, like most changes and regulations of a standardised Frisian spelling, generated a good deal of discussion.¹⁾²⁾.

Several dictionaries are available, such as Dutch-Frisian and Frisian-Dutch dictionaries, a legal dictionary, and a scientific, descriptive dictionary containing ca. 120,000 entries, Wurdboek fan de Fryske Taal. The Fryske Akademy has made these dictionaries available online, including language tools to check spelling and grammar and to generate automatic translation, via Frysker (Eng: more Frisian).

There have been various formulations of standardised spellings:³⁾⁴⁾

• Old-Frisian (c. 1200-1550): Old Frisian shows shared norms and spelling, though no grammars or dictionaries codified these.
• Mid-Frisian (1550-1800): Gysbert Japicx (1603–1666) was a Frisian author who formed his own spelling. His writing influenced future orthographies.
• Modern-Frisian (1800-now): There have been several suggested spelling formats, for example: The Brothers Joast Hiddes Halbertsma (1789-1869) and Eeltsje Hiddes Halbertsma (1797-1858) published in Frisian and in doing so, formed a spelling close to the vernacular (similar to Gysbert Japicx). Harmen Sytstra (1817-1862) developed the Iduna-stavering, based on Old-Frisian. In 1879, a broadly adopted standerd was set by the Selscip foar Frysce Taal in Skriftekennise (Society for Frisian Language and Literature), which adopted an standard orthography (similar to the orthography of the Halbertsma brothers). Waling Dykstra (1821–1914) compiled the first completed Frisian dictionaries (1900, 1903, 1911). In 1945, the Fryske Akademy develops a standardised spelling. In 1980, the Province of Fryslân adopted a new standardised spelling, that was developed and described by the Fryske Akademy. The current spelling was adopted in 2015.

Frisian is part of the Frisian language family, devided into Western Frisian (Frisian) in the Netherlands, and East Frisian and North Frisian in Germany. Frisian is spoken in large parts of the province of Fryslân, one of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands (see figure 1 and 2).

Within the province, three main varieties of Frisian can be distinguished⁵⁾:

• Clay Frisian, Klaaifrysk
• Forest Frisian, Wâldfrysk
• Southwestern variety, Súdwesthoeksk

In figure 2, the varieties are shown on the map with the Dutch names (Kleifries for Clay Frisian, Woudfries for Forest Frisian, and Zuidwesthoeks for the Southwestern variety). There is mutual intelligibility between the varieties. The standard spelling is mainly based on Clay Frisian⁶⁾.

Points of Interest

id	symbol	latitude	longitude	description
Europe
1		53.14º	5.86º	https://wiki.mercator-research.eu/start

^{Figure 1. Map showing the central point for the Frisian language area. The coordinate data were retrieved from Glottolog7).}

^{Figure 2: Map showing languages ares in the North of the Netherlands. The Frisian language area is shown in blue. Also shown on the map within Fryslân are Stellingwerfs (a Low Saxon variety, in green), Bildts (in orange), mixed varietes (striped areas), Hollandic language areas (in pink)8)}

It is estimated that there are around 450,000 Frisian speakers⁹⁾. Periodic surveys on Frisian language skills among citizens in the province of Fryslân are made available by the Fryske Akademy and Provincial Government of Fryslân.

The periodic surveys give an indication for Frisian language skills within the province of Fryslân. In table 1, the percentages of people who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good are shown.

^{Table 1. People in Fryslân (in %) who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good}

Frisian education in Fryslân has been allowed at primary level since 1907, and more and more legal possibilities, as well as obligations, have been realised since then. Major developments happened in 1980, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in all years of primary education, in 1993, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in the first (two) years of secondary education, and 1998, when the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages went into force, with concrete provisions for Frisian in pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and adult education^13)14)15).

Regarding primary education, the Frisian language made its debut in the Dutch school system in 1907, when the province of Fryslân started to offer grants to support Frisian lessons after school hours in primary education. In 1937, the Netherlands adopted legislative measures that made it possible for Frisian to be included during Dutch classes, within school hours. This was extended to include Frisian as an optional subject and bilingual instruction (Dutch-Frisian) in 1955, though nine primary schools had already started an experiment with bilingual education in 1950. A major change for Frisian occurred with the Primary Education Act from 1974, which made Frisian a compulsory subject in primary school from 1980 onwards. In 1997, experiments with trilingual education (Frisian, Dutch, English) began¹⁶⁾.

In 1948, a legal amendment made it possible to teach Frisian as optional subject in secondary education, after consent of the Minister of Education. This was extended when Frisian was allowed to be taught optional subject starting in 1968, and as examination subject from 1970 onwards. In 1993, Frisian became a compulsory subject in the lower grades (effectively the first two years) of secondary education¹⁷⁾.

For both primary and secondary education, attainment targets for compulsory subjects are determined at national level. For Frisian in primary education, twelve attainment targets, mirrored to the Dutch attainment targets, were established in 1993. In 2006, these attainment targets for primary education were lowered to six and mirrored to English, and attainment targets for secondary education (lower grades) were established as well¹⁸⁾¹⁹⁾

Though Frisian ought to be taught as compulsory subject in both primary and secondary schools, not all schools do so. In 2018, 113 out of 412 (27.4%) primary schools in Fryslân, and 28 out of 71 (39.4%) secondary schools implemented all attainment targets²⁰⁾. To improve this, the province of Fryslân has initiated Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 2030²¹⁾

The Netherlands has signed and ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

• Frisian is covered under Part III of the Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.
• The Netherlands has ratified concrete provisions for Frisian in pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and adult education²²⁾²³⁾
• In the all evaluation reports, the Committee of Experts has recommended the Dutch government to improve Frisian education at all levels²⁴⁾
• The Netherlands has not ratified provisions for Frisian in vocational education, but the Committee of Experts has recommended to do so in the seventh evaluation report²⁵⁾

The Netherlands has signed and ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities

• Frisian is recognised as national minority in the Netherlands.
• In the fourth Opinion (2023), the Advisory Committe made the recommendation to take measuers to ensure sufficient finances, tackle the shortage of teachers, and support the Education Inspectorate to monitor Frisian in education.

Frisian as official language in Fryslân, as well as linguistic rights to use Frisian within judicial and governmental bodies were consolidated in the Use of Frisian Act of 2014 (Dutch: Wet Gebruik Friese Taal 2014). This Act states that, e.g.:

• Frisian and Dutch are official languages in the province of Fryslân, the Netherlands;
• Frisian can be used in/with governmental bodies and administrative authorities in Fryslân;
• Frisian can be used with judicial authorities / in court by citizens of Fryslân;
• An Advisory Body for the Frisian language is installed and is responsible to, e.g. promote the Frisian language, and advice national and provincial governments regarding the compliance with the Act and the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.

Acts regarding Education are made at national level in the Netherlands.

pre-school education

The Dutch law for pre-school education (Dutch: Wet Kinderopvang allows for Frisian to be used as medium of instruction, alongside Dutch.

As of January 2025, there is a legal requirement for employees to have a Dutch language certificate at B2 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference ²⁶⁾. Employees who use Frisian or another language full time, are exempt for a Dutch certificate, but are required to have a certificate at B2 level for the language of instruction.

primary eduation

The Dutch law on primary education (Dutch: Wet op het Primair Onderwijs) states that:

• In primary education, classes are also taught in Frisian (in addition to Dutch and English);
• Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
• The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).

secondary education The Dutch law on secondary education (Dutch: Wet op het Voortgezet Onderwijs) states that:

• During the first two years of secondary education in the province of Fryslân, Frisian language and culture are part of the curriculum.
• Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
• The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).

vocational and higher education The Dutch law on vocational education (Dutch: Wet educatie en beroepsonderwijs) and on higher education (Dutch: Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek state that a language other than Dutch may be used when it is taught.

Every four years, according to the Wet Gebruik Friese Taal, the province of Fryslân and the Dutch government sign a covenant regarding the Frisian language. This covenant on Frisian Language and Culture (Frisian: Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske Taal en Kultuer. In short: BFTK) includes agreements to implement Frisian in education at all levels. The current BFTK spans the period of 2024-2028.

Though provinces in the Netherlands do not have legislative power regarding education, the Provincial Government of Fryslân is unique, as the primary initaitve to develop Frisian attainment targets lies with the province, and the province has the authority to exempt schools from certain attainment targets set for Frisian education²⁷⁾²⁸⁾. The national Inspectorate however, reported that these exemptions reduce the ambitions of schools for Frisian education²⁹⁾.

In 2019, the provincial government of Fryslân launched Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 2030³⁰⁾

For pre-school education, the organisation SFBO (Sintrum Frysktalige berne-opfang - Centre of Frisian language day care) organises in-service training courses with emphasis on Frisian and multilingualism.

Teacher training for primary and secondary education is available in Fryslân at the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. A Frisian language course is part of the curriculum for primary teacher students. For secondary teacher students, a degree for Frisian is available (for both lower grades and higher grades). Seconadary teacher training for the higher grades is also available at the University of Groningen ³¹⁾.

Frisian language teachers can attend in-service training and support or advise via e.g. educational support centre Cedin, NHL Stenden NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, or the Frisian language teacher interest group Levende Talen.

The inspectorate (Inspectie van het Onderwijs) inspects Frisian primary and secondary language education every few years. The latest report was published in 2019.

Schools in Fryslân do not receive more structural funding from the Dutch Government than schools in other provinces, and the Frisian provincial government is the main body which finances and organises the Frisian teacher training ³²⁾. . In 2020, the Dutch national government provided €174,000 for basic facilities for Frisian, and the Frisian provincial government structually provided €178,000 for Frisian classes as well as temporary subsidies ³³⁾. In light of Taalplan Frysk 2030, both Dutch and Frisian governments contribute to Frisian primary and secondary school materials ³⁴⁾.

In its last report (2022) of the Committee of Experts on the Charter on Frisian language education in the Netherlands, the committee regarded the implementation of the ratified provisions for Frisian education as “partly fulfilled” regarding pre-school, secondary, and higher education, and “not fulfilled” regarding primary edcuation³⁵⁾.

A new curriculum with defined attainment targets for Frisian is in development³⁶⁾.

Nowadays, around two-thirds of pre-school locations in Fryslân are bilingual³⁷⁾. These locations receive guidance from the SFBO. However, the supply is still lower than the demand, and the accessibilty differs per region ³⁸⁾.

Below in table 2 is an overview of the primary schools (N=412) in Fryslân in 2018, and the exemptions for attainment targets given by the Province, with profile A reflecting a school without any exemptions, and profile G with exemptions for all attainment targets³⁹⁾⁴⁰⁾. Exemptions are possible for writing, reading, language perception, speaking, listening, and attitude.

<sub>Table 2. An overview of primary schools in 2018, and the given profiles to reflect the implemented attainment targets (p.36)⁴¹⁾.
* These are mostly the schools outside of the Frisian language area: the Wadden Islands and the Stellingwerven</sub>

According to the Inspectorate, 34,9% of the primary teachers has no qualification to teach Frisian ⁴²⁾.

To improve Frisian language education in primary school, an experiment with trilingual education, set up by the Fryske Akademy, started in 1997: seven primary schools committed themselves to use Frisian and English also as mediums of instruction, alongside Dutch.⁴³⁾.

In 2016 73, out of 428 primary schools (17%), were included in the “trilingual network”. However, only 30 of those were at the time officially certified. The degree to which Frisian is used as language of instruction varies among schools. Estimates vary between 1.25-3.5 hours per week and 10-25% of the time ⁴⁴⁾. In 2018, there were 59 trilingual primary schools (17%) in Fryslân, that use Dutch, Frisian, and English as medium of instruction⁴⁵⁾.

Table 3 shows an overview of the secondary schools (N=71) in Fryslân in 2018, and the exemptions for attainment targets given by the Province, with profile A reflecting a school without any exemptions, and profile D with exemptions for all attainment targets⁴⁶⁾⁴⁷⁾.

<sub>Table 3. An overview of seconadry schools in 2018, and the given profiles to reflect the implemented attainment targets (p.166)⁴⁸⁾.
* These are schools outside of the Frisian language area: the Wadden Islands and the Stellingwerven</sub>

According to the report of the Inespectorate (2019), 22% of the teachers had no qualification to teach Frisian ⁴⁹⁾.

In 2018, six secondary schools offered trilingual education⁵⁰⁾. In 2021, there were five secondary schools with multilingual education, under the new concept of Taalryk (rich in language)⁵¹⁾.

There are many teaching materials for various education levels, from pre-school education to higher education. Most learning materials for primary and secondary education are commissioned and subsidised by the provincial government of Fryslân. The past few years digital materials have been developed as well. Materials are mainly being developed mainly by Afûk and Cedin. Many materials are collected in the database of Taalplan Frysk, which can be sorted into educational levels.

Reading in Frisian is promoted via e.g. the Berneboeke-ambassadeur, an ambassador for children books who visits schools, the Fryske berneboekewike (week of the Frisian children's books), and/or the lês-mar-foar-wiken (read aloud weeks) every September.

The Tomke-project, set up in 1996 by several institutes, is a popular resource for Frisian, and includes stories, rhymes, songs, and games for preschoolers. All concern a Frisian preschooler named Tomke. A questionnaire (November 2013 - March 2014) among preschool group leaders revealed that 81% used materials from the Tomke project on a daily basis ⁵²⁾

For primary education, there is the digital Frisian learning method Spoar 8 (track 8), which is used by the majority of primary schools⁵³⁾. It has learning activities (e.g. thematic lessons, projects, reading activities) for all primary school years.

Keimpe de Krokodil (Keimpe the crocodile) promotes reading among primary school children aged 4-8 years. Activities are included in Spoar 8.

For secondary education, there is also a digital Frisian learning method, Searje 36 (Series 36). It has many resources for the first year, but also has activities for the higher years (including the final, exam classes), which is used by the majority of secondary schools which teach Frisian ⁵⁴⁾.

The project wy binne mbu is the main initiator for the development of Frisian teaching materials for vocational education. These include multilingual reading materials, bookzines, practical assignments, and language learning activities.

There are various course books, developed by the Afûk, for adult education.

The majority of students in Fryslân attendvocational education⁵⁵⁾. Frisian isn 't a compulsory subject in vocational education, and the Netherlands has not ratified provisions for Frisian in vocational education via the ECRML. In 2022, the Committee of Experts advised to ratify this article (Article 8.1.d)⁵⁶⁾. In 2023 and in 2025, DINGtiid (the Frisian advisory body for the Dutch national government and Frisian provincial government) echoed this, and advised the Netherlands to ratify this article⁵⁷⁾.

Wy binne mbû (We are vocational education) started in 2021. This project is an initiative of Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan Frysk 2030),and the three main partners are the two major vocational education institutes in Fryslân, Firda and Aeres, and Afûk. The project aims to promote Frisian within vocational education, and aims to have language awareness and language attitudes be included in the curriculum of schools in Fryslân. It does so by creating teaching materials, practical assignments, and reading materials, and by supporting teachers, e.g. with thematic days and seminars.

In Fryslân, it is possible to attend the Frisian teacher training at the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences in Ljouwert/Leeuwarden. Here, pre-service teachers for secondary education are taught, both for the lower grades and higher grades of seccondary education. NHL Stenden also is the only university of applied sciences to offer the minor Frisian, for 30 ECTS credits. The minor consists of three modules with two or more courses each, namely 1)language skills; 2)linguistics, and 3)fiction & culture ⁵⁸⁾.

Outside of the province, the University of Groningen has a Frisian language and culture department. Before, there was a full bachelor degree programme in Frisian Language and Culture. However, this programme was discontinued in 2012, and replaced by a Frisian track of 60 ECTS credits within the bachelor degree programme Minorities and Multilingualism, which started in 2013. The bachelor Minorities and Multilingualism will be discontinued, however, in 2026/2027 ⁵⁹⁾.
In the BFTK 2024-2028 covenant, plans are described to re-establish a bachelor degree programme for Frisian⁶⁰⁾. As a result of this BFTK 2024-2028, a covenant Konvenant oangeande de gearwurking tusken it Ministearje fan Underwiis, Kultuer en Wittenskip, it Ministearje fan Ynlânske Saken en Keninkryksrelaasjes, Provinsje Fryslân en de Ryksuniversiteit Grins foar de organisaasje, befoardering en it yn stân hâlden fan in folweardich, duorsum en tagonklik wittenskiplik bachelorprogramma Fryske taal en kultuer (English: Covenant regarding the cooperation between the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, the Provincial government of Fryslân, the University of Groningen for the organisation, promotion and maintenance of a full-fledged, sustainable and accessible scientific bachelor degree programme in Frisian language and culture) was signed on July 10, 2025. In september 2026, the first students can start with this new Frisian bachelor degree programme ⁶¹⁾.

For master degree progammes, it is possible to attend the educational programme for Frisian (to teach in the higher grades of secondary education) or Multilingualism, and focus on Frisian during the programme, at the Campus Fryslân (faculty of the University of Groningen in th eprovince of Fryslân).

The Chair Fryske Taal en Kultuer (Frisian language and culture) is held by interim professor Arjen Versloot since February 2023, after the previous professor retired in December 2022 ⁶²⁾.

Some Frisian courses are also offered at the University of Amsterdam, where there is a chair for Germaanse taalkunde, in het bijzonder de Duitse, Scandinavische en Friese talen (English:Germanic linguistics, especially German, Scandinavian and Frisian languages), held by prof. Arjen Versloot.

The chair Sociolinguïstiek, met bijzondere aandacht voor de taalsituatie in Fryslân (English: Sociolinguistics, with particular attention to the language situation in Fryslân) at the University of Utrecht is held by prof. Hans van de Velde.

At the Christian-Albrecht University, Kiel (Germany), a Frisian bachelor and master degree are available (with the focus on North Frisian), with a chair for Frisistik, Frisian studies.

The Afûk is the most well-known provider of Frisian language courses for adults. It has courses regarding listening, speaking, writing skills, but also provides courses aimed at specific target groups, such as health care workers, or international attendees.

• Frysker: includes dictionaries and Frisian language tools. Made by the Fryske Akademy

• Frysker: includes dictionaries and Frisian language tools. Made by the Fryske Akademy
• overview. A general overview ow learning materials, provided by Taalplan Frysk
• Frisian MOOC: mass open online course made by de Fryske Akademy and Afûk.
• Frisian MOOC mass open online course made by de University of Groningen.
• Edufrysk online learning environment for Frisian

• Afûk. The Afûk is the main provider for language courses, but also publishes Frisian literature and implements language awareness.
• Cedin. Cedin provides educational support, and offers in-service teacher training courses.
• Fryske Akademy. The Fryske Akademy conducts, shares and facilitates scientific research on the Frisian case. It is the main provider for Frisian dictionaries.
• NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences provides Frisian teacher education, and primary teacher education in Fryslân.
• Omrop Fryslân. The Frisian public broadcaster. It provides Frisian news, radio and TV, as well as educational programmes.
• SFBO. SFBO provides educational support for pre-school education.
• Tresoar. The Frisian historic and linguistic centre and library.

• The Tomke project, started by Afûk in 1997 to stimulate Frisian language development in preschoolers. Tomke is a small Frisian boy that appears in tv adventures, books and a website.
• Lytskes, iPad app by Afûk.
• Hantsjes yn 'e hichte, iPad app by Afûk.

• Studio F: a Frisian language teaching method. Their digital learning environment can be viewed online.
• SkoalTV: Frisian School TV
• Lezen voor de lijst: list with books sorted on level with information and assignments for both student and teacher.

• Searje 36: digital learning method to learn Frisian in the first year of secondary education.
• Linkk: Frisian magazine and television.

Read more about Frisian language education in Mercator's Regional Dossier (2024).