• In the language itself: Frysk
• ISO 639-3 standard: fry

• Classification: Indo-European → West Germanic → North Sea Germanic → Anglo-Frisian → Frisian → Western Frisian. See Frisian at Glottolog for more information.
• Script: Latin.

Frisian has a standardised spelling, which is under authority of the Province of Fryslân since 1969. The Province commissions the Fryske Akademy to develop and describe the standardised orthography. In 2015, the most recent standardised spelling was adopted by the Province of Fryslan. This, like most changes and regulations of a standardised Frisian spelling, generated a good deal of discussion.¹⁾²⁾.

Several dictionaries are available, such as Dutch-Frisian and Frisian-Dutch dictionaries, a legal dictionary, and a scientific, descriptive dictionary containing ca. 120,000 entries, Wurdboek fan de Fryske Taal. The Fryske Akademy has made these dictionaries available online, including language tools to check spelling and grammar and to generate automatic translation, via Frysker (Eng: more Frisian).

There have been various formulations of standardised spellings:³⁾⁴⁾

• Old-Frisian (c. 1200-1550): Old Frisian shows shared norms and spelling, though no grammars or dictionaries codified these.
• Mid-Frisian (1550-1800): Gysbert Japicx (1603–1666) was a Frisian author who formed his own spelling. His writing influenced future orthographies.
• Modern-Frisian (1800-now): There have been several suggested spelling formats, for example: The Brothers Joast Hiddes Halbertsma (1789-1869) and Eeltsje Hiddes Halbertsma (1797-1858) published in Frisian and in doing so, formed a spelling close to the vernacular (similar to Gysbert Japicx). Harmen Sytstra (1817-1862) developed the Iduna-stavering, based on Old-Frisian. In 1879, a broadly adopted standerd was set by the Selscip foar Frysce Taal in Skriftekennise (Society for Frisian Language and Literature), which adopted an standard orthography (similar to the orthography of the Halbertsma brothers). Waling Dykstra (1821–1914) compiled the first completed Frisian dictionaries (1900, 1903, 1911). In 1945, the Fryske Akademy develops a standardised spelling. In 1980, the Province of Fryslân adopted a new standardised spelling, that was developed and described by the Fryske Akademy. The current spelling was adopted in 2015.

Frisian is part of the Frisian language family, devided into Western Frisian (Frisian) in the Netherlands, and East Frisian and North Frisian in Germany. Frisian is spoken in large parts of the province of Fryslân, one of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands (see figure 1 and 2).

Within the province, three main varieties of Frisian can be distinguished⁵⁾:

• Clay Frisian, Klaaifrysk
• Forest Frisian, Wâldfrysk
• Southwestern variety, Súdwesthoeksk

In figure 2, the varieties are shown on the map with the Dutch names (Kleifries for Clay Frisian, Woudfries for Forest Frisian, and Zuidwesthoeks for the Southwestern variety). There is mutual intelligibility between the varieties. The standard spelling is mainly based on Clay Frisian⁶⁾.

Points of Interest

id	symbol	latitude	longitude	description
Europe
1		53.14º	5.86º	https://wiki.mercator-research.eu/start

^{Figure 1. Map showing the central point for the Frisian language area. The coordinate data were retrieved from Glottolog7).}

^{Figure 2: Map showing languages ares in the North of the Netherlands. The Frisian language area is shown in blue. Also shown on the map within Fryslân are Stellingwerfs (a Low Saxon variety, in green), Bildts (in orange), mixed varietes (striped areas), Hollandic language areas (in pink)8)}

It is estimated that there are around 450,000 Frisian speakers⁹⁾. Periodic surveys on Frisian language skills among citizens in the province of Fryslân are made available by the Fryske Akademy and Provincial Government of Fryslân.

The periodic surveys give an indication for Frisian language skills within the province of Fryslân. In table 1, the percentages of people who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good are shown.

^{Table 1. People in Fryslân (in %) who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good}

Frisian education in Fryslân has been allowed at primary level since 1907, and more and more legal possibilities, as well as obligations, have been realised since then. Major developments happened in 1980, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in all years of primary education, in 1993, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in the first (two) years of secondary education, and 1998, when the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages went into force, with concrete provisions for Frisian in pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and adult education^13)14)15).

Regarding primary education, the Frisian language made its debut in the Dutch school system in 1907, when the province of Fryslân started to offer grants to support Frisian lessons after school hours in primary education. In 1937, the Netherlands adopted legislative measures that made it possible for Frisian to be included during Dutch classes, within school hours. This was extended to include Frisian as an optional subject and bilingual instruction (Dutch-Frisian) in 1955, though nine primary schools had already started an experiment with bilingual education in 1950. A major change for Frisian occurred with the Primary Education Act from 1974, which made Frisian a compulsory subject in primary school from 1980 onwards. In 1997, experiments with trilingual education (Frisian, Dutch, English) began¹⁶⁾.

In 1948, a legal amendment made it possible to teach Frisian as optional subject in secondary education, after consent of the Minister of Education. This was extended when Frisian was allowed to be taught optional subject starting in 1968, and as examination subject from 1970 onwards. In 1993, Frisian became a compulsory subject in the lower grades (effectively the first two years) of secondary education¹⁷⁾.

For both primary and secondary education, attainment targets for compulsory subjects are determined at national level. For Frisian in primary education, twelve attainment targets, mirrored to the Dutch attainment targets, were established in 1993. In 2006, these attainment targets for primary education were lowered to six and mirrored to English, and attainment targets for secondary education (lower grades) were established as well¹⁸⁾¹⁹⁾

Though Frisian ought to be taught as compulsory subject in both primary and secondary schools, not all schools do so. In 2018, 113 out of 412 (27.4%) primary schools in Fryslân, and 28 out of 71 (39.4%) secondary schools implemented all attainment targets²⁰⁾. To improve this, the province of Fryslân has initiated Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 2030²¹⁾

The Netherlands has signed and ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

• Frisian is covered under Part III of the Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.
• The Netherlands has ratified concrete provisions for Frisian in pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and adult education²²⁾²³⁾
• In the all evaluation reports, the Committee of Experts has recommended the Dutch government to improve Frisian education at all levels²⁴⁾
• The Netherlands has not ratified provisions for Frisian in vocational education, but the Committee of Experts has recommended to do so in the seventh evaluation report²⁵⁾

The Netherlands has signed and ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities

• Frisian is recognised as national minority in the Netherlands.
• In the fourth Opinion (2023), the Advisory Committe made the recommendation to take measuers to ensure sufficient finances, tackle the shortage of teachers, and support the Education Inspectorate to monitor Frisian in education.

Frisian as official language in Fryslân, as well as linguistic rights to use Frisian within judicial and governmental bodies were consolidated in the Use of Frisian Act of 2014 (Dutch: Wet Gebruik Friese Taal 2014). This Act states that, e.g.:

• Frisian and Dutch are official languages in the province of Fryslân, the Netherlands;
• Frisian can be used in/with governmental bodies and administrative authorities in Fryslân;
• Frisian can be used with judicial authorities / in court by citizens of Fryslân;
• An Advisory Body for the Frisian language is installed and is responsible to, e.g. promote the Frisian language, and advice national and provincial governments regarding the compliance with the Act and the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.

Acts regarding Education are made at national level in the Netherlands.

The Dutch law for pre-school education (Dutch: Wet Kinderopvang allows for Frisian to be used as medium of instruction, alongside Dutch.

The Dutch law on primary education (Dutch: Wet op het Primair Onderwijs) states that:

• In primary education, classes are also taught in Frisian (in addition to Dutch and English);
• Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
• The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).

The Dutch law on secondary education (Dutch: Wet op het Voortgezet Onderwijs) states that:

• During the first two years of secondary education in the province of Fryslân, Frisian language and culture are part of the curriculum.
• Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
• The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).

The Dutch law on vocational education (Dutch: Wet educatie en beroepsonderwijs) and on higher education (Dutch: Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek state that a language other than Dutch may be used when it is taught.

Every four years, according to the Wet Gebruik Friese Taal, the province of Fryslân and the Dutch government sign a covenant regarding the Frisian language. This covenant on Frisian Language and Culture (Frisian: Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske Taal en Kultuer. In short: BFTK) includes agreements to implement Frisian in education at all levels. The current BFTK spans the period of 2024-2028.

Though provinces in the Netherlands do not have legislative power regarding education, the Provincial Government of Fryslân is unique, as the primary initaitve to develop Frisian attainment targets lies with the province, and the province has the authority to exempt schools from certain attainment targets set for Frisian education²⁶⁾²⁷⁾. The national Inspectorate however, reported that these exemptions reduce the ambitions of schools for Frisian education²⁸⁾.

In 2019, the provincial government of Fryslân launched Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 2030²⁹⁾

For pre-school education, the organisation SFBO (Sintrum Frysktalige berne-opfang - Centre of Frisian language day care) organises in-service training courses with emphasis on Frisian and multilingualism.

Teacher training for primary and secondary education is available in Fryslân at the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. A Frisian language course is part of the curriculum for primary teacher students. For secondary teacher students, a degree for Frisian is available (for both lower grades and higher grades). Seconadary teacher training for the higher grades is also available at the University of Groningen ³⁰⁾.

Frisian language teachers can attend in-service training and support or advise via e.g. educational support centre Cedin, NHL Stenden NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, or the Frisian language teacher interest group Levende Talen.

The inspectorate (Inspectie van het Onderwijs) inspects Frisian primary and secondary language education every few years. The latest report was published in 2019.

Schools in Fryslân do not receive more structural funding from the Dutch Government than schools in other provinces, and the Frisian provincial government is the main body which finances and organises the Frisian teacher training ³¹⁾. . In 2020, the Dutch national government provided €174,000 for basic facilities for Frisian, and the Frisian provincial government structually provided €178,000 for Frisian classes as well as temporary subsidies ³²⁾. In light of Taalplan Frysk 2030, both Dutch and Frisian governments contribute to Frisian primary and secondary school materials ³³⁾.

In its last report (2022) of the Committee of Experts on the Charter on Frisian language education in the Netherlands, the committee regarded the implementation of the ratified provisions for Frisian education as “partly fulfilled” regarding pre-school, secondary, and higher education, and “not fulfilled” regarding primary edcuation³⁴⁾.

A new curriculum with defined goals for Frisian will be developed ³⁵⁾.

Below an overview of all the primary schools (N=428) in Fryslân and their exemptions given by the Province (2018)³⁶⁾. Excemptions are possible for writing, reading, language perception, speaking, listening, and attitude.

_{* These are the schools outside of the Frisian speaking area: the Wadden Islands and the Stellingwerven.}

In 2017, the Province of Fryslân stated that about half (200) of the total number (400) of preschool locations are bilingual (that is: Frisian is used for more than 50% of the time). These locations receive guidance from the Sintrum Frysktalige Berne Opfang (SFBO). About 30-35% of the children below 4 years old attend them. However, especially in the cities, the offer does not meet the demand ³⁷⁾.

In 2000, Boneschansker en Le Rutte stated that, similary to 1984, Frisian in preschool was hardly used in urban playgroups, but rural playgroups were more or less bilingual. Group activities were almost always in Dutch: Frisian was used mainly in contact with individual children and parents ³⁸⁾. It is unclear it this situation persists.

In 2000, about 60% of the preschool teachers had Frisian as their mother tongue ³⁹⁾.

In 2009 Frisian language education was inspected. The inspection found that 77% of 39 inspected schools offered sufficient Frisian to cover the set educational goals and 61% reserved sufficient time in the curriculum ⁴⁰⁾.

In 2009 primary school principles stated that Frisian was used as language of instruction mainly in the lower classes: on average about three hours a week. This time steadily decreased in higher grades down to 1 hour per week. About one quarter of the schools did not use Frisian as language of instruction ⁴¹⁾. However, in its last report on Frisian language education in the Netherlands, the committee of experts stated that the time allotted to Frisian was only 30-40 minutes on average ⁴²⁾.

In 2009 Frisian as a subject was given for an hour per week in the lowest two grades, and decreased in higher grades down to 45 minutes. Compared to 2005 is the time allotted to Frisian has increased by half an hour ⁴³⁾.

In 2009 77% of 39 inspected schools taught sufficient Frisian to archieve the set education goals regarding Frisian language skills ⁴⁴⁾.

• 34,9% of the primary teachers has no qualification to teach Frisian ⁴⁵⁾.

To improve Frisian language education in primary school, an experiment, set up by the Fryske Akademy, started in 1997 with trilingual education: seven primary schools committed themselves to use Frisian and English also as mediums of instruction.⁴⁶⁾.

In 2016 73, out of 428 primary schools, were included in the “trilingual network”. However, only 30 of those were at the time officially certified. The degree to which Frisian is used as language of instruction varies among schools. Estimates vary between 1.25-3.5 hours per week and 10-25% of the time ⁴⁷⁾.

The report by the Dutch inspectorate of Education from 2009 stated that out of 17 inspected secondary schools:

• 59% offered sufficient Frisian to cover the set educational goals,
• 94% reserved sufficient time in the curriculum,
• 17 taught Frisian as a subject in the lower few classes,
• 47% of the teachers that taught the subject were competent to do so,
• 59% offered Frisian as an examination subject ⁴⁸⁾.

In its last report (2016) on Frisian language education in the Netherlands, the committee of experts from the Council of Europe stated that most schools (73 out of 87) offer Frisian for only one hour per week and for one year only. Only 15 schools teach it after the first year. Since the 2013-2014 school year, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science provides € 65.000 annually for teaching Frisian at secondary schools. Frisian is an optional exam subject and approximately 50 pupils choose it every year ⁴⁹⁾.

According to the report of the Inespectorate (2019), 22% of the teachers had no qualification to teach Frisian ⁵⁰⁾.

In 2016, five secondary schools offered trilingual education. The authorities plan to increase their number to at least ten by 2018. The share of subjects taught in Frisian in these schools appears to be very low. The aim to use Frisian, English and Dutch according to a share of 30%-30%-40% of the time has not yet been reached. In general, Frisian is used for about 16% of the time (taught as a subject and used as a medium of instruction) ⁵¹⁾.

The Tomke-project, set up in 1996 by several institutes, includes stories, rhymes, songs, and games for preschoolers. All concern a Frisian preschooler named Tomke. A questionnaire from November 2013 among preschool group leaders revealed that 81% used materials from the Tomke project on a daily basis ⁵²⁾.

Learning materials for primary and seconday education are commissioned and subsidized by the Province of Fryslân. The past few years digital materials have been developed. All materials are mainly being developed mainly by Afûk and Cedin ⁵³⁾.

• The Afûk offers Frisian language courses for adults.
• NHL Stenden offers Frisian teacher training.
• The University of Groningen has the Frisian department, which offers the three-year bachelor Minorities and Multilingualism with optional courses that focus on Frisian. There is also an educational master degree for Frisian.
• The University of Amsterdam offers a minor Frisian.

• Taalweb Frysk: tools for writing Frisian made by the Fryske Akademy
• Frisian MOOC: mass open online course made by de Fryske Akademy and Afûk.
• Frisian MOOC mass open online course made by de University of Groningen.
• Edufrysk online learning environment for Frisian
• GameFrysk Frisian language games
• numbers

• Fryske Akademy, studies the Frisian language, develops online dictionaries,
• Afûk organizes language courses, publishes Frisian literature and sets up language awareness campiagns, e.g.:
  • Praat mar Frysk: campaign to promote the Frisian language.
• Dingtiid, the official body that inspects compliance with De Wet Gebruik Friese Taal.
• Tresoar: Frisian historic and linguistic centre.
• Omrop Fryslân, Frisian news, radio and TV broadcasting service.
• De Ried fan de Fryske Beweging Frisian lobby group, which produces e.g.
  • https://www.itnijs.frl news website in Frisian

• The Tomke project, started by Afûk in 1997 to stimulate Frisian language development in preschoolers. Tomke is a small Frisian boy that appears in tv adventures, books and a website.
• Lytskes, iPad app by Afûk.
• Hantsjes yn 'e hichte, iPad app by Afûk.

• Studio F: a Frisian language teaching method. Their digital learning environment can be viewed online.
• SkoalTV: Frisian School TV
• Begripend lêzen Frysk: CITO examination to test Frisian reading skills in the highest grade of primary education.
• Lezen voor de lijst: list with books sorted on level with information and assignments for both student and teacher.

• Searje 36: digital learning method to learn Frisian in the first year of secondary education.
• Linkk: Frisian magazine and television.

Read more about Frisian language education in Mercator's Regional Dossier (2023).