Table of Contents
Frisian in the Netherlands
Language designations:
- In the language itself: Frysk
- ISO 639-3 standard: fry
Language vitality:
Linguistic aspects:
- Script: Latin.
Language standardisation:
Frisian has a standardised spelling, which is under authority of the Province of Fryslân since 1969. The Province commissions the Fryske Akademy to develop and describe the standardised orthography. In 2015, the most recent standardised spelling was adopted by the Province of Fryslan. This, like most changes and regulations of a standardised Frisian spelling, generated a good deal of discussion.1)2).
Dictionaries
Several dictionaries are available, such as Dutch-Frisian and Frisian-Dutch dictionaries, a legal dictionary, and a scientific, descriptive dictionary containing ca. 120,000 entries, Wurdboek fan de Fryske Taal. The Fryske Akademy has made these dictionaries available online, including language tools to check spelling and grammar and to generate automatic translation, via Frysker (Eng: more Frisian).
Historical development
There have been various formulations of standardised spellings:3)4)
- Old-Frisian (c. 1200-1550): Old Frisian shows shared norms and spelling, though no grammars or dictionaries codified these.
- Mid-Frisian (1550-1800): Gysbert Japicx (1603–1666) was a Frisian author who formed his own spelling. His writing influenced future orthographies.
- Modern-Frisian (1800-now): There have been several suggested spelling formats, for example: The Brothers Joast Hiddes Halbertsma (1789-1869) and Eeltsje Hiddes Halbertsma (1797-1858) published in Frisian and in doing so, formed a spelling close to the vernacular (similar to Gysbert Japicx). Harmen Sytstra (1817-1862) developed the Iduna-stavering, based on Old-Frisian. In 1879, a broadly adopted standerd was set by the Selscip foar Frysce Taal in Skriftekennise (Society for Frisian Language and Literature), which adopted an standard orthography (similar to the orthography of the Halbertsma brothers). Waling Dykstra (1821–1914) compiled the first completed Frisian dictionaries (1900, 1903, 1911). In 1945, the Fryske Akademy develops a standardised spelling. In 1980, the Province of Fryslân adopted a new standardised spelling, that was developed and described by the Fryske Akademy. The current spelling was adopted in 2015.
Demographics
Language Area
Frisian is part of the Frisian language family, devided into Western Frisian (Frisian) in the Netherlands, and East Frisian and North Frisian in Germany. Frisian is spoken in large parts of the province of Fryslân, one of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands (see figure 1 and 2).
Within the province, three main varieties of Frisian can be distinguished5):
- Clay Frisian, Klaaifrysk
- Forest Frisian, Wâldfrysk
- Southwestern variety, Súdwesthoeksk
In figure 2, the varieties are shown on the map with the Dutch names (Kleifries for Clay Frisian, Woudfries for Forest Frisian, and Zuidwesthoeks for the Southwestern variety). There is mutual intelligibility between the varieties. The standard spelling is mainly based on Clay Frisian6).
operating instructions
Various functions are available as part of the map.
mouse/touch operation
- moving by grabbing the map with a mouse-click you can move the map around
- overview map using the < button in the bottom right of the map you can expand an overview map
- zooming in and out using the + and - buttons in the top left of the map you can obtain more or less detail in the map
- switching themes or maps clicking on the ≡ icon on the right-hand side of the map you can view and select available maps and themes
- retrieving information the map may contain elements that contain more information, by clicking these a popup will show this information
- fullscreen display using the ⛶ button the map can be maximized to fullscreen display, use the ▢ button to return to page display.
keyboard operation
Keyboard operation becomes available after activating the map using the tab key (the map will show a focus indicator ring).
- moving using the arrow keys you can move the map
- overview map using the + button in the bottom right of the map you can expand an overview map
- zooming in and out using the + and - buttons in the top left of the map or by using the + and - keys you can obtain more or less detail in the map
- switching themes or maps clicking on the ≡ icon on the right-hand side of the map you can view and select available maps and themes
- retrieving information the map may contain elements that contain more information, using the i key you can activate a cursor that may be moved using the arrow keys, pressing the enter will execute an information retrieval. press the i or the escape key to return to navigation mode
- fullscreen display using the ⛶ button the map can be maximized to fullscreen display, use the ▢ button to return to page display.
It's possible that some of the functions or buttons describe above have been disabled by the page author or the administrator
| id | symbol | latitude | longitude | description |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | ||||
| 1 |  |
53.14º | 5.86º | |
Figure 1. Map showing the central point for the Frisian language area. The coordinate data were retrieved from Glottolog7).
Figure 2: Map showing languages ares in the North of the Netherlands. The Frisian language area is shown in blue. Also shown on the map within Fryslân are Stellingwerfs (a Low Saxon variety, in green), Bildts (in orange), mixed varietes (striped areas), Hollandic language areas (in pink)8)
Speaker numbers
It is estimated that there are around 450,000 Frisian speakers9). Periodic surveys on Frisian language skills among citizens in the province of Fryslân are made available by the Fryske Akademy and Provincial Government of Fryslân.
Language skills
The periodic surveys give an indication for Frisian language skills within the province of Fryslân. In table 1, the percentages of people who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good are shown.
| survey | Can understand | Can speak | Can read | Can write |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 201510) | 94% | 67% | 52% | 15% |
| 201811) | 89% | 69% | 58% | 18% |
| 202012) | 93% | 64% | 52% | 16% |
Table 1. People in Fryslân (in %) who mark their Frisian language skills to be good or very good
Language education
History of language education:
Frisian education in Fryslân has been allowed at primary level since 1907, and more and more legal possibilities, as well as obligations, have been realised since then. Major developments happened in 1980, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in all years of primary education, in 1993, when Frisian became a compulsory subject in the first (two) years of secondary education, and 1998, when the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages went into force, with concrete provisions for Frisian in pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and adult education13)14)15).
Regarding primary education, the Frisian language made its debut in the Dutch school system in 1907, when the province of Fryslân started to offer grants to support Frisian lessons after school hours in primary education. In 1937, the Netherlands adopted legislative measures that made it possible for Frisian to be included during Dutch classes, within school hours. This was extended to include Frisian as an optional subject and bilingual instruction (Dutch-Frisian) in 1955, though nine primary schools had already started an experiment with bilingual education in 1950. A major change for Frisian occurred with the Primary Education Act from 1974, which made Frisian a compulsory subject in primary school from 1980 onwards. In 1997, experiments with trilingual education (Frisian, Dutch, English) began16).
In 1948, a legal amendment made it possible to teach Frisian as optional subject in secondary education, after consent of the Minister of Education. This was extended when Frisian was allowed to be taught optional subject starting in 1968, and as examination subject from 1970 onwards. In 1993, Frisian became a compulsory subject in the lower grades (effectively the first two years) of secondary education17).
For both primary and secondary education, attainment targets for compulsory subjects are determined at national level. For Frisian in primary education, twelve attainment targets, mirrored to the Dutch attainment targets, were established in 1993. In 2006, these attainment targets for primary education were lowered to six and mirrored to English, and attainment targets for secondary education (lower grades) were established as well18)19)
Though Frisian ought to be taught as compulsory subject in both primary and secondary schools, not all schools do so. In 2018, 113 out of 412 (27.4%) primary schools in Fryslân, and 28 out of 71 (39.4%) secondary schools implemented all attainment targets20). To improve this, the province of Fryslân has initiated Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 203021)
Legislation of language education:
Legistlation at European level
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
The Netherlands has signed and ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
- Frisian is covered under Part III of the Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.
- In the all evaluation reports, the Committee of Experts has recommended the Dutch government to improve Frisian education at all levels24)
- The Netherlands has not ratified provisions for Frisian in vocational education, but the Committee of Experts has recommended to do so in the seventh evaluation report25)
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
The Netherlands has signed and ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
- Frisian is recognised as national minority in the Netherlands.
- In the fourth Opinion (2023), the Advisory Committe made the recommendation to take measuers to ensure sufficient finances, tackle the shortage of teachers, and support the Education Inspectorate to monitor Frisian in education.
Legislation at national level
Frisian as official language in Fryslân, as well as linguistic rights to use Frisian within judicial and governmental bodies were consolidated in the Use of Frisian Act of 2014 (Dutch: Wet Gebruik Friese Taal 2014). This Act states that, e.g.:
- Frisian and Dutch are official languages in the province of Fryslân, the Netherlands;
- Frisian can be used in/with governmental bodies and administrative authorities in Fryslân;
- Frisian can be used with judicial authorities / in court by citizens of Fryslân;
- An Advisory Body for the Frisian language is installed and is responsible to, e.g. promote the Frisian language, and advice national and provincial governments regarding the compliance with the Act and the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.
Acts regarding Education are made at national level in the Netherlands.
The Dutch law for pre-school education (Dutch: Wet Kinderopvang allows for Frisian to be used as medium of instruction, alongside Dutch.
The Dutch law on primary education (Dutch: Wet op het Primair Onderwijs) states that:
- In primary education, classes are also taught in Frisian (in addition to Dutch and English);
- Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
- The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).
The Dutch law on secondary education (Dutch: Wet op het Voortgezet Onderwijs) states that:
- During the first two years of secondary education in the province of Fryslân, Frisian language and culture are part of the curriculum.
- Schools may request exemption from this, for which the authority lies with the Provincial Government of Fryslân.
- The Provincial Government of Fryslân prescribes attainment targets for Frisian (to be approved by Minister of Education).
The Dutch law on vocational education (Dutch: Wet educatie en beroepsonderwijs) and on higher education (Dutch: Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek state that a language other than Dutch may be used when it is taught.
Legislation and policy at provincial level
Every four years, according to the Wet Gebruik Friese Taal, the province of Fryslân and the Dutch government sign a covenant regarding the Frisian language. This covenant on Frisian Language and Culture (Frisian: Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske Taal en Kultuer. In short: BFTK) includes agreements to implement Frisian in education at all levels. The current BFTK spans the period of 2024-2028.
Though provinces in the Netherlands do not have legislative power regarding education, the Provincial Government of Fryslân is unique, as the primary initaitve to develop Frisian attainment targets lies with the province, and the province has the authority to exempt schools from certain attainment targets set for Frisian education26)27). The national Inspectorate however, reported that these exemptions reduce the ambitions of schools for Frisian education28).
In 2019, the provincial government of Fryslân launched Taalplan Frysk 2030 (Language Plan 2030), a policy plan which aims to have all schools implement the legally set attainment targets by 203029)
Support structure for education of the language
Training and support for teachers
Teacher training
For pre-school education, the organisation SFBO (Sintrum Frysktalige berne-opfang - Centre of Frisian language day care) organises in-service training courses with emphasis on Frisian and multilingualism.
Teacher training for primary and secondary education is available in Fryslân at the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. A Frisian language course is part of the curriculum for primary teacher students. For secondary teacher students, a degree for Frisian is available (for both lower grades and higher grades). Seconadary teacher training for the higher grades is also available at the University of Groningen 30).
Teacher support
Frisian language teachers can attend in-service training and support or advise via e.g. educational support centre Cedin, NHL Stenden NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, or the Frisian language teacher interest group Levende Talen.
Inspection of compliance with educational legislation
The inspectorate (Inspectie van het Onderwijs) inspects Frisian primary and secondary language education every few years. The latest report was published in 2019.
Financial support
Schools in Fryslân do not receive more structural funding from the Dutch Government than schools in other provinces, and the Frisian provincial government is the main body which finances and organises the Frisian teacher training 31). . In 2020, the Dutch national government provided €174,000 for basic facilities for Frisian, and the Frisian provincial government structually provided €178,000 for Frisian classes as well as temporary subsidies 32). In light of Taalplan Frysk 2030, both Dutch and Frisian governments contribute to Frisian primary and secondary school materials 33).
Education in practice
In its last report (2022) of the Committee of Experts on the Charter on Frisian language education in the Netherlands, the committee regarded the implementation of the ratified provisions for Frisian education as “partly fulfilled” regarding pre-school, secondary, and higher education, and “not fulfilled” regarding primary edcuation34).
A new curriculum with defined attainment targets for Frisian is in development35).
Preschool
Nowadays, around two-thirds of pre-school locations in Fryslân are bilingual36). These locations receive guidance from the SFBO. However, the supply is still lower than the demand, and the accessibilty differs per region 37).
Primary education
Below in table 2 is an overview of the primary schools (N=412) in Fryslân in 2018, and the exemptions for attainment targets given by the Province, with profile A reflecting a school without any exemptions, and profile G with exemptions for all attainment targets38)39). Exemptions are possible for writing, reading, language perception, speaking, listening, and attitude.
| schools | language profile | exemption for which attainment targets |
|---|---|---|
| 113 | A | - |
| 83 | B | writing |
| 91 | C | writing and reading |
| 6 | D | writing, reading, language perception |
| 52 | E | writing, reading, language perception, speaking |
| 46 | F | writing, reading, language perception, speaking, listening |
| 21 | G | everything* |
Table 2. An overview of primary schools, and the given profiles to reflect the implemented attainment targets (p.36)40).
* These are mostly the schools outside of the Frisian language area: the Wadden Islands and the Stellingwerven
Teacher qualification
According to the Inspectorate, 34,9% of the primary teachers has no qualification to teach Frisian 41).
Trilingual primary education
To improve Frisian language education in primary school, an experiment with trilingual education, set up by the Fryske Akademy, started in 1997: seven primary schools committed themselves to use Frisian and English also as mediums of instruction, alongside Dutch.42).
In 2016 73, out of 428 primary schools (17%), were included in the “trilingual network”. However, only 30 of those were at the time officially certified. The degree to which Frisian is used as language of instruction varies among schools. Estimates vary between 1.25-3.5 hours per week and 10-25% of the time 43). In 2018, there were 59 trilingual primary schools (17%) in Fryslân, that use Dutch, Frisian, and English as medium of instruction44).
Secondary education
Table 3 shows an overview of the secondary schools (N=71) in Fryslân in 2018, and the exemptions for attainment targets given by the Province, with profile A reflecting a school without any exemptions, and profile D with exemptions for all attainment targets45)46).
| schools | language profile |
|---|---|
| 28 | A |
| 14 | B |
| 11 | C1 |
| 13 | C2 |
| 5 | D |
Table 3. An overview of seconadry schools, and the given profiles to reflect the implemented attainment targets (p.166)47).
* These are schools outside of the Frisian language area: the Wadden Islands and the Stellingwerven
Teacher qualification
According to the report of the Inespectorate (2019), 22% of the teachers had no qualification to teach Frisian 48).
Trilingual primary education
In 2018, six secondary schools offered trilingual education49).
Learning materials for primary and seconday education are commissioned and subsidized by the Province of Fryslân. The past few years digital materials have been developed. All materials are mainly being developed mainly by Afûk and Cedin 50).
Vocational education
Though Frisian is no compulsory subject in vocational education, nor has the Netherlands ratified provisions for Frisian in vocational education, the project Wy binne mbû (We are vocational education) started, iniated by Language Plan Frysk, to promote Frisian at vocational education.
Higher education
In Fryslân, it is possible to attend the Frisian teacher training at the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. It is also possible to attend the master degree programme Multilingualism, and focus on Frisian during the programme, at the Campus Fryslân (faculty of the University of Groningen).
Outside of the province, the University of Groningen has a Frisian language and culture department. Within the bachelor degree programme Minorities and Multilingualism, it is possible to take a Frisian track of 60 ECTS credits. The bachelor Minorities and Multilingualism will be discontinued, however, in 2026/2027 51) In the BFTK 2024-2028 covenant, plans are described to re-establish a bachelor degree programme for Frisian52).
Some Frisian courses are also offered at the University of Amsterdam. At the Christian-Albrecht University, Kiel (Germany), a Frisian bachelor and master degree are available (with the focus on North Frisian).
Adult education
The Afûk is the most well-known provider of Frisian language courses for adults. It has courses regarding listening, speaking, writing skills, but also provides courses aimed at specific target groups, such as health care workers, or international attendees.
Learning resources and educational institutions
Dictionaries and grammars
- Frysker: includes dictionaries and Frisian language tools. Made by the Fryske Akademy
General and open resources
- Frysker: includes dictionaries and Frisian language tools. Made by the Fryske Akademy
- overview. A general overview ow learning materials, provided by Taalplan Frysk
- Frisian MOOC: mass open online course made by de Fryske Akademy and Afûk.
- Frisian MOOC mass open online course made by de University of Groningen.
- Edufrysk online learning environment for Frisian
Institutes and organisations
- Afûk. The Afûk is the main provider for language courses, but also publishes Frisian literature and implements language awareness.
- Cedin. Cedin provides educational support, and offers in-service teacher training courses.
- Fryske Akademy. The Fryske Akademy conducts, shares and facilitates scientific research on the Frisian case. It is the main provider for Frisian dictionaries.
- NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences. NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences provides Frisian teacher education, and primary teacher education in Fryslân.
- Omrop Fryslân. The Frisian public broadcaster. It provides Frisian news, radio and TV, as well as educational programmes.
- SFBO. SFBO provides educational support for pre-school education.
- Tresoar. The Frisian historic and linguistic centre and library.
Educational materials for preschool
- The Tomke project, started by Afûk in 1997 to stimulate Frisian language development in preschoolers. Tomke is a small Frisian boy that appears in tv adventures, books and a website.
- Hantsjes yn 'e hichte, iPad app by Afûk.
Educational material for primary education
- Studio F: a Frisian language teaching method. Their digital learning environment can be viewed online.
- SkoalTV: Frisian School TV
- Lezen voor de lijst: list with books sorted on level with information and assignments for both student and teacher.
Educational material for secondary education
- Searje 36: digital learning method to learn Frisian in the first year of secondary education.
- Linkk: Frisian magazine and television.
Mercator's Regional Dossier
Read more about Frisian language education in Mercator's Regional Dossier (2023).
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Hoekstra, E. (2003). Frisian: Standardization in progress of a language in decay. Fryske Akademy. https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/460646/108Stannert.pdf.
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Wolf, H. (October 13, 2014). Argyf Standertwurdlist/oanpassing Steatestavering. Henk Wolf. https://www.henkwolf.nl/wp-content/uploads/staveringswiziging_argyf.pdf.
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Oppewal, T., Gezelle-Meerburg, B. Krol, J., Steenmeijer-Wielinga, T., Vries. O., Breuker, P., Wind, H., Veenbaas, J., Oldenhof, B., Van der Weg, J.(2006). Zolang de wind van de wolken waait: Geschiedenis van de Friese literatuur. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker.
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De Jong, G. & Hoekstra, E. (2015). A general introduction to Frisian. Taalportaal. https://www.taalportaal.org/taalportaal/topic/pid/topic-14225224491227143.
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Glottolog. n.d. Family: Modern West Frisian. Glottolog. Retrieved October 21, 2024, from https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mode12643.
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Wutsje. (2007). Taalsituatie in Noord-Nederland [image]. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taalsituatie_Noord-Nederland.png.
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Provinsje Fryslân. (2015). Fryske Taalatlas 2015[Frisian Language Atlas 2015]. Provinsje Fryslân.http://afuk.frl/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/012015-taalatlas-frysk-1e-druk.pdf
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Klinkenberg, E. L., Stefan, M. H., & Jonkman, R. J. (2018). Taal yn Fryslân. De folgjende generaasje [Language in Friesland. The next generation]. Provinsje Fryslân. https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/nl/publications/taal-yn-frysl%C3%A2n-de-folgjende-generaasje-2018.
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Provinsje Fryslân. (2020). Fryske Taalatlas 2020 [Frisian Language Atlas 2020]. Provinsje Fryslân.https://www.fryslan.frl/_flysystem/media/Fryske%20Taalatlas%202020%20%28Nederlands%29.pdf
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Ytsma, J. & Riemersma, A. (2007). Frisian: The Frisian Language in Education in the Netherlands 4th Edition. Mercator Research Centre. Retrieved from https://www.mercator-research.eu/en/regional-dossiers/frisian-netherlands/.
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Council of Europe. (2024, October 17). Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 148. Treaty Office. https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=148.
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Council of Europe. (2024, October 17). Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 - European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ETS No. 148). Treaty Office. https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/concerning-a-given-treaty?module=declarations-by-treaty&territoires=&codeNature=0&codePays=&numSte=148&enVigueur=true&ddateDebut=05-05-1949.
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Bayat, Z., Kircher, R., & Van de Velde, H. (2022). Minority language rights to education in international, regional, and domestic regulations and practices: the case of Frisian in the Netherlands. Current Issues in Language Planning, 24(1), 81–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2022.2037291..
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Varkevisser, N.A. & Waslweer, A. It is mei sizzen net te dwaan: rapport Taalplan Frysk. Provinsje Fryslân. https://taalplan.frl/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Rapport-I-tis-mei-sizzen-net-te-dwaan-Taalplan-Frysk-2030-FRL.pdf.
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Council of Europe. (2024, October 17). Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ETS No. 148). Treaty Office. https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/concerning-a-given-treaty?module=declarations-by-treaty&territoires=&codeNature=0&codePays=&numSte=148&enVigueur=true&ddateDebut=05-05-1949.
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Scarse, Y. (2024). De ymplemintaasje fan it Europeesk Hânfêst foar Regionale of Minderheidstalen yn Nederlân: in update n.o.f. de sânde rapportaazjesyklus [The implementation of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: an update after the seventh monitoring cyclus]. Orgaan foar de Fryske taal DINGtiid. https://dingtiid.frl/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/De_ymplemintaasje_fan_it_Europeesk_Hanfest_feb2024.pdf.
26)
Varkevisser, N.A. & Walsweer, A. It is mei sizzen net te dwaan: rapport Taalplan Frysk. Provinsje Fryslân. https://taalplan.frl/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Rapport-I-tis-mei-sizzen-net-te-dwaan-Taalplan-Frysk-2030-FRL.pdf.
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32)
Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2019). Sizzen is neat, mar dwaan is in ding: Frysk yn it primêr en fuortset ûnderwiis.. Retrieved from https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/themarapporten/2019/12/05/fries-in-het-primair-en-voortgezet-onderwijs.
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Committee of Experts of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. (2022). Seventh Evaluation Report on the Netherlands. Committee of Experts of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Council of Europe.https://rm.coe.int/netherlandsecrml7-en/1680aa8930.
36)
Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang. (n.d.). Algemien [General]. Retrieved Octover 12, 2024, from https://www.sfbo.nl/frl/algemien.
42)
Inspectie van het Onderwijs (2010)Tussen wens en werkelijkheid
43)
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Fifth report of the Committee of Experts in respect of the Netherlands, 2016
49)
Varkevisser, N.A. & Waslweer, A. It is mei sizzen net te dwaan: rapport Taalplan Frysk. Provinsje Fryslân. https://taalplan.frl/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Rapport-I-tis-mei-sizzen-net-te-dwaan-Taalplan-Frysk-2030-FRL.pdf.).
==== Learning materials ====
The Tomke-project, set up in 1996 by several institutes, includes stories, rhymes, songs, and games for preschoolers. All concern a Frisian preschooler named Tomke. A questionnaire from November 2013 among preschool group leaders revealed that 81% used materials from the Tomke project on a daily basis ((Varkevisser, Nynke, ‘Tomke inventarisatie-onderzoek’ (Afûk, 2014)
50)
Retrieved from the Province of Fryslân website
51)
University of Groningen (n.d.). Minorities & Multilingualism. https://www.rug.nl/bachelors/minorities-multilingualism/.
52)
Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske taal en kultuer 2024-2028 [Covenant on Frisian Language and Culture 2024-2028]. (2024, April 2). https://cuatro.sim-cdn.nl/fryslan/uploads/bestuursafspraak_fries_taal_en_cultuur_2talig.pdf?cb=1PADP9sK.