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-====== The Frisian language in education in the Netherlands ======
-{{:rd:research_logo.jpg?direct |Mercator research logo}}
-th Edition
-===== Glossary =====
-**CEDIN ** Centrum voor Educatieve Dienstverlening in Noord-Nederland [school advisory centre in the northern Netherlands]
-**CEVO ** Centrale Examencommissie Vaststelling Opgaven [central commission for exam questions]
-**CHN ** Christelijke Hogeschool Nederland [christian college of the Netherlands]
-**CITO ** Centraal Instituut voor Toetsontwikkeling [national institute for educational assessment]
-**HAVO ** Hoger Algemeen Voortgezet Onderwijs [general secondary education]
-**HBO ** Hoger Beroepsonderwijs [higher vocational education/polytechnic]
-**MBO ** Middelbaar Beroepsonderwijs [senior vocational education]
-**NHL ** Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden [northern college of Leeuwarden]
-**SLO ** Stichting Leerplan Ontwikkeling [national institute for curriculum development]
-**VMBO ** Voorbereidend Middelbaar Beroepsonderwijs [pre-vocational education]
-**VWO ** Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs [pre-university education]
-===== Foreword =====
-==== background ====
-The Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning (formerly Mercator-Education) aims at the acquisition, circulation, and application of knowledge in the field of regional and minority language education. Regional or minority languages are languages that differ from the official language of the state where they are spoken and that are traditionally used within a given territory by nationals of that state forming a group numerically smaller than the rest of the state’s population. For several years an important means for the Mercator Research Centre to achieve the goal of knowledge acquisition and circulation has been the Regional Dossiers Series. The success of this series illustrates a need for documents stating briefly the most essential features of the education system of regions with an autochthonous lesser used language.
-==== aim ====
-Regional dossiers aim at providing a concise description and basic statistics about minority language education in a specific region of the European Union. Aspects that are addressed include features of the education system, recent educational policies, main actors, legal arrangements, and support structures, as well as quantitative aspects, such as the number of schools, teachers, pupils, and financial investments. This kind of information can serve several purposes and can be relevant for different target groups.
-==== target group ====
-Policymakers, researchers, teachers, students, and journalists may use the information provided to assess developments in European minority language schooling. They can also use a regional dossier as a first orientation towards further research or as a source of ideas for improving educational provisions in their own region.
-==== link with Eurydice ====
-In order to link these regional descriptions with those of national education systems, the format of the regional dossiers follows the format used by <font inherit/inherit;;inherit;;inherit>Eurydice</font>    , the information network on education in Europe. <font inherit/inherit;;inherit;;inherit>Eurydice</font>    provides information on the administration and structure of national education systems in the member states of the European Union.
-==== contents ====
-The remainder of this dossier consists of an introduction to the region under study, followed by six sections each dealing with a specific level of the education system. These brief descriptions contain factual information presented in a readily accessible way. Sections eight to ten cover research, prospects, and summary statistics. For detailed information and political discussions about language use at the various levels of education, the reader is referred to other sources with a list of publications.
-===== 1. Introduction =====
-==== language ====
-Frisian, or Frysk, is an autochthonous minority language currently spoken in Fryslân, one of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands. Frisian is a western Germanic language closely related to Dutch. Until the 15<sup>th</sup>  century Frisian was widely used in writing as well as speech in an area much larger than that of the current province, following the coastline of the present-day Netherlands and Germany. From the 16<sup>th</sup>  century onwards Frisian became a language that was almost exclusively oral in usage, used in mainly rural areas. In the course of the 19<sup>th</sup>  century the Frisian language gradually gained more access into other areas of life. Frisian developed, independently from Dutch, into what is now called ‘New Frisian’. Only in the twentieth century the Frisian language regained its position in government, jurisdiction, and education. The Frisian language movement played an important role in this recovery (Gorter et al. 2001).
-==== population ====
-The Netherlands has over 16 million inhabitants; 620,000 of whom live in the Province of Fryslân. Of those inhabitants of Fryslân, 94 percent understands Frisian, 74 percent can speak it, 65 percent is able to read it, and 17 percent can write it. More than half of the population (55%) states Frisian as their mother tongue. Moreover, 76 percent of the population in Fryslân consider themselves to be Frisian (Gorter & Jonkman, 1995).
-==== language status ====
-Nowadays, Frisian has an official status in the Netherlands. Its spelling has been standardised and Frisian is used in several domains of Frisian society, thereby breaking through the dominance of Dutch. Apart from domains such as the judiciary, public administration, radio, and television, the Frisian language is also used within education in Fryslân. In 1997, the name of the province Friesland was officially changed into Fryslân.
-National recognition is not expressed in a special law. Frisian language policy on national level started with the //‘Van Ommen Committee’// (1970) that produced a report that recognised the responsibility of the national government with regard to Frisian (Rapport 1970). An important principle of the report was the recognition of Fryslân as a bilingual province. This report is considered the formal recognition of Frisian as the second official language of the Netherlands. However, the use of the Frisian language in certain domains is restricted clearly to the province of Fryslân. The committee stated that the central government should focus on safeguarding the identity of the Frisian language and culture, in collaboration with the provincial and municipal authorities. According to the report, this means that the national government has the function of resolving specific problems caused by bilingualism in the Frisian culture (Van Dijk, 1987). An immediate result of the report was a small sum of money in the national budget that was intended for organisations with key roles in maintaining the Frisian language and culture. To date, the national government spends 1.4 million euro annually on the protection and promotion of the Frisian language in education and 450,000 euro on Frisian culture. The report also resulted in the initiative of the national parliament to make Frisian a compulsory subject in primary education. Unfortunately, 30 years later the results of the national language policy are lagging behind European standards (cf. De Jager & Van der Meer, 2007).
-Current language policy regarding the Frisian language is based on the Covenant on Frisian Language and Culture, an agreement between the provincial and the central government. This was drawn up in 1989, renewed in 1993, and redrafted in 2001 (BFTK-Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske Taal en Kultuer 2001-2010). This third edition of the Covenant was structured according to part III of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (European Charter, 1992). The Charter was signed in 1992 and ratified by the Dutch government in 1996 with respect to Frisian. The ratification applied to 48 concrete measures from part III of the Charter. In 2005 the Dutch government recognised the Frisians as a national minority by means of the ratification of the Framework Convention on the protection of National Minorities (Framework Convention, 1995). In the considerans of the Covenant the desirability is stated to make it possible for citizens, local authorities, organisations, and institutions to express themselves in Frisian. The Covenant also states that both the provincial and the central government are responsible for preserving and reinforcing the Frisian language and culture. Both the national government and the provincial government provide financial resources in order to create suitable conditions for this purpose.
-On several occasions, various Frisian organisations have insisted on the improvement of the legal position of Frisian in education and the necessity for an overall and coherent language policy, but to date this has not resulted in an overall approach in terms of language legislation. This desideratum has been confirmed in the recommendations to the Dutch government made by the Council of Europe in both reports of the Committee of Experts concerning the 48 signed undertakings from part III of the European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages (Council of Europe, 2001 & 2004).
-==== status of language education ====
-The role of Frisian in primary education dates back to 1907 when the provincial government offered a grant to support Frisian lessons after regular school hours. Frisian was then taught as an extra-curricular subject. Legislative provisions for Frisian only began in 1937 with alterations to the Primary Education Act of 1920. Although Frisian was not specifically mentioned, this did make it possible to teach Frisian as a regional language in the higher grades during Dutch lessons. However, nothing was arranged for the use of Frisian as a medium of instruction. In 1950, nine primary schools began to experiment with bilingual education and in 1955 bilingual schools obtained an actual legal basis. Frisian became an optional subject throughout primary school, and the use of Frisian as medium of instruction was allowed in the lower grades. A further legislative improvement with regard to Frisian was established in 1974 when the Primary Education Act was modified yet again. Frisian became an approved teaching medium in all grades and an obligatory school subject throughout primary education as of 1980.
-In 1985, the Primary Education Act was replaced by a completely new Act for Primary Education in the Netherlands for the creation of new primary schools for pupils aged 4-12. This act did not affect the position of Frisian. With regard to pre-school provisions a law was enacted in 2004. According to this law Frisian has got the same legal position in pre-school provisions as in the Primary Act of 1937. This means that Frisian can be used on a voluntary basis.
-In 1988, Frisian was introduced in special education as an optional medium of instruction. With regard to secondary education Frisian has been permitted as a facultative subject from 1937 onwards and as an optional exam subject from 1970. In 1993 Frisian became an obligatory subject in the lower grades of secondary education. However, the position of Frisian as a subject remains marginal due to the limited time investment. The laws regarding vocational education do not explicitly mention Frisian. There are no legal prescriptions concerning Frisian in higher education either.
-==== education system ====
-The educational system in Fryslân does not differ from that in the rest of the Netherlands. An important characteristic is the principle of “freedom of education”, which gives parents or institutions (e.g. denominational ones) the possibility to found schools based on religious or special pedagogical convictions. This principle is laid down in the Constitution (Article 23) and finds expression in virtually all facets of the educational system. It has led to a situation in which public and non-public/private institutions co-exist at all educational levels. In theory schools can choose their own educational methods and materials as there is no formal national curriculum or prescribed learning material. In practice, however, the well balanced system of official attainment targets or core goals, curriculum development, national tests at the end of primary schooling, and national exams at the end of secondary schooling guarantees that students of all school types pass their exams at a comparative level throughout the Netherlands.
-==== private and public ====
-Almost 70 percent of all Dutch primary schools and nearly 80 percent of all Dutch secondary schools are run by private institutions, mostly Catholic or Protestant. Both systems of public and private schooling are fully funded by the state and have to meet detailed quantitative and qualitative criteria. As a consequence, both public and private schooling are considered equivalent types of education.
-Although in theory the “freedom of education” principle could lead to a great diversity in education, in practice the differences in educational processes and curriculum between schools are not very large. This similarity of curriculum is partly due to the introduction of attainment targets for all school subjects. The government employs these targets (in existence since 1993, renewed in 2006) to indicate the minimum goals students ought to attain by the end of primary school and after two years of secondary education respectively.\\
-bilingual education forms
-In the pre-school sector a number of pre-school provisions provides immersion programmes while other provisions work bilingually.
-In the period between the official recognition of ‘bilingual schooling’ in Fryslân in 1955 and the introduction of Frisian as an obligatory subject for all pupils in 1980, a limited number of schools (25% at the most) provided bilingual schooling in the lower grades of primary school. As from 1980 all primary schools in Fryslân teach Frisian as a subject while 20% of all schools use the language as a medium of instruction for half a day or one day per week. The most recent development is the introduction of trilingual schooling in 1997 (cf. Gorter, 2005; Van Ruijven & Ytsma, 2007; Ytsma, 2002). Within the model of trilingual schooling Frisian and Dutch are provided as subject and medium of instruction on an equal footing. English is added to the curriculum in grade 7 and 8 (when pupils are aged 10-12), both as a subject and as medium of instruction. In the school year 2005-2006 eight schools have officially been recognised as trilingual. According to the ambitions of provincial language policy, this number will grow over the next years to at least 50 in 2012 (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007).\\
-In secondary education Frisian is taught as a compulsory subject in the lower grades during one hour per week only. The language is rarely used as the official medium of instruction. However, currently further experiments are being developed following the trilingual primary school experiments, that aim at creating a trilingual option in some secondary schools.
-==== administration ====
-Authorities are involved in education at central, provincial, and local levels, but primary responsibility lies with the central government that controls education by means of laws, decrees, and regulations, e.g. on compulsory subjects, examinations, or organisational aspects of education. The province of Fryslân does not have any direct legislative or executive power in education. The central government subsidises Frisian learning materials. Apart from that, the provincial administration of Fryslân has decided to invest 10 million euros over a period of 4 years aiming at the improvement of education in Fryslân in general and the improvement of education in Frisian in particular (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007).
-The school boards of private schools are formed by foundations or associations while municipal authorities constitute the boards of public schools. The actual curriculum is determined by such competent authorities and by individual schools. The local authority’s tasks include planning and co-ordinating accommodation, facilities, and the provision of materials, as well as ensuring that the regulations as laid down in the Education Act are followed.
-==== inspection ====
-The central government’s inspectorate monitors regulations and standards, and this task is subdivided according to the different educational sectors. The inspectorate formally checks the quality of education by visiting schools and by approving the annual plan of activities that schools are required to draft. Moreover, the inspectorate investigates problem areas in education. The inspectorate reports to and advises the minister. The inspectorial reports are used to draft the periodical reports of the Dutch government to the Council of Europe with regard to the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
-==== support structure ====
-The Netherlands has a number of advisory bodies in the field of education. Some have been set up to advise the Minister of Education on educational policy while others predominantly support schools with curriculum development (//Instituut voor Leerplanontwikkeling// - National Institute for Curriculum Development, SLO) or by producing exams (//Centraal Instituut voor Toetsontwikkeling// - National Institute for Educational Assessment, CITO). In their respective work programmes a special task for Frisian is included.
-There is a special advisory body for the support of Frisian in education. This is the Frisian Language Department in the school counselling service known as CEDIN: a centre for educational advice for both public and private schools, mainly at primary level. A specific task of the Frisian Department is to develop learning materials, especially for Frisian as a subject. Other tasks of the Frisian Department include advising schools, expanding, theoretically, on the issue of bilingualism, providing educational radio and television programmes and materials, and giving practical guidance to schools. The Frisian Language Department of CEDIN is also involved in the network on trilingual primary education (see section 3).
-===== 2. Pre-school education =====
-==== target group ====
-Playgroups cater to children aged between 2½ and 4, their provision being limited to a maximum of three mornings/afternoons a week. Day care is for children from 0-4 years old and can be employed five days a week. Since the 1980s national policy has aimed to expand these provisions and to improve their quality in order to support the increasing participation of women in the labour market.
-==== structure ====
-Playgroups are usually small with 10-30 children, one official leader, and one or more others on a voluntary basis. They are intended to develop language skills, creative aptitude and, in particular, the social capabilities of young children. Playgroups fall under the responsibility of the municipal policy for welfare and are usually privately run (sometimes by volunteers) and subsidised by the municipalities.
-Day care centres are bigger than playgroups (usually more than 50 children) and include more groups per centre. They do not work with volunteers and receive subsidies from the municipalities. Some day care centres operate commercially and do not receive subsidies (Boneschansker & Le Rütte, 2000).
-Neither of these types of educational provision are part of compulsory education in the Netherlands. As far as financing is concerned parents have to pay a substantial contribution. Playgroups and day care centres often merge into associations at municipal level. Another important trend in some pre-primary school education programmes is to gear them towards primary education as a means of educational disadvantages of immigrant children, for example.
-In 1989 the Stifting Pjutteboartersplak was founded. This foundation has an explicit language policy and aims to establish a Frisian-speaking environment for young children. The Stifting sets up Frisian speaking playgroups that accept both Frisian and Dutch-speaking children. The latter will be immersed in Frisian. In 2005, the task of the Stifting Pjutteboartersplak was taken over by the Stifting Frysktalige Berneopfang, which is responsible for the running of bilingual playgroups.
-In 1999, the Provincial Government issued a grant to promote the use of Frisian at playgroups and day care centres and to upgrade the educational work at pre-school level to a professional level. The execution of this task was given to It Sintrum Frysktalige Berneopfang, which operates under responsibility of the Stifting Frysktalige Berneopfang.
-For the improvement of the professional quality of playgroup and day care leaders a Quality Framework has been developed consisting of three elements: language command, didactics, and language policy. Through guidance and visitations the playgroups are encouraged to increase their qualities in these fields. As a result of this process It Sintrum Frysktalige Berneopfang issues certificates to playgroups and day care centres that meet the set criteria. A playgroup and day care centre that receives a certificate obtains an extra grant from the provincial government. The project was evaluated in 2006. The main conclusions were that the professional qualification of the play group leaders has increased greatly, that the qualification structure is transparent and on a level comparable with other provisions in Fryslân. On the basis of these results the provincial administration has granted a permanent financial structure for Frisian medium pre-school provisions (Boneschansker, 2006; Provinsje Fryslân, 2007).
-==== legislation ====
-With regard to pre-school education a law was enacted in 2004. This law gives Frisian the same legal position in pre-school provisions as it had in the Primary Act of 1937. This means a facultative use of Frisian. However, according to the reports of the Committee of Experts (2001, 2004) this regulation is not in line with the undertaking for pre-school education in article 8 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages that has been signed by the Dutch government.
-==== language use ====
-According to a study concerning more than 250 play groups and day care centres in Fryslân, in 1984 (Duipmans, 1984), 61 percent of the leaders had Frisian as their mother tongue, against 60 percent in 2000. Without the implementation of any measures, however, the group leaders’ command of Frisian is expected to decrease since a negative correlation was discovered between the age of the leaders and their use of Frisian: the younger the leaders, the lesser usage of Frisian (Boneschansker & Le Rütte, 2000). Therefore, the implementation of pedagogical methods in teacher training is considered necessary.
-The attitude of leaders towards Frisian can be considered more positive than before. However, a fairly positive attitude with regard to Frisian hardly guarantees that a language choice exists in activities or events that involve people with different language backgrounds. In their research, Boneschansker and Le Rütte (2000) showed that, with the exception of the aforementioned Frisian playgroups, the use of Frisian at pre-school facilities has not changed in comparison to 1984 when the previous study on pre-school education and Frisian was carried out. Frisian is hardly used in urban playgroups whereas rural playgroups can be regarded as bilingual. The research also revealed that Dutch is being used far more often than Frisian in group activities such as reading and singing. Frisian is mainly used in individual contacts with children and parents.
-In non-Frisian playgroups not many group leaders with a command of Frisian are employed. In their initial training leaders only learn some very basic pedagogical skills regarding multilingualism. Currently the responsible vocational training institute is developing a new curriculum that will include elements of bilingualism and Frisian language command.
-In spite of the lack of an official Frisian language policy, attention is given to Frisian in a more informal way. Most playgroups have quite a lot of Frisian material and value group leaders with a command of Frisian, since the use of Frisian makes children feel at ease and stimulates their general development. Supervisors, or pre-school teachers, are expected at the very least to understand Frisian, because they have to take care of both Frisian-speaking and Dutch-speaking children. It can be assumed that the degree to which Frisian is actually used in playgroups depends on the linguistic background of the population as the child is free to use its first language.
-In order to compensate for the lack of attention given to the language issue in the initial training and also to prepare group leaders for operating in a bilingual or multilingual environment, It Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang organises in-service training courses with the emphasis on Frisian and multilingualism respectively.
-Since 2003, a new initiative has grown into a success: during one special week per year, in all 27 municipalities of the mainland of Fryslân, 150 volunteers are actively involved in reading aloud in Frisian at more than 250 play groups with over 7.500 children. For quite a number of these children this reading aloud is the first official immersion activity in the Frisian language and their first introduction into the Frisian culture.
-==== teaching material ====
-The Sintrum Frysktalige Berneopfang is engaged in the development of Frisian material for young children, aimed at understanding, singing, and reading aloud. One of the most successful projects aimed at the Frisian language development of pre-school children is the Tomke-project, which in 1996 was set up as a shared project of the Public Library Service, the Frisian Language Department of Cedin, the Afûk (foundation for the promotion of the knowledge and use of Frisian), and the Frisian Children’s Book (foundation for the promotion of reading and writing of children’s books). The project is subsidised by the national Reading Foundation and the provincial government. The Tomke-project aims to improve the reading skills of pre-school children and has a different theme every year, ranging from reading aloud, rhymes, and songs to the influence of playing on language development. Concrete activities in the Tomke project include information evenings for all people involved, publication of the Tomke book, a TV series, activities in libraries, and finally an interactive website. Over the last ten years the participation in the Tomke-project has increased to about 150 (out of 250) playgroups and day care centres. The success of the Tomke-project has resulted in editions of Tomke in other languages, to wit North-Frisian (Germany) and Papiamento (Surinam).
-==== statistics ====
-In 1973 there were about 40 playgroups in Fryslân, concentrated mostly in the larger towns. By 1984 there were about 200 playgroups: a huge increase within ten years. In 1994, a survey by Mercator- Education (Van der Goot, Renkema & Stuijt) in Fryslân revealed that a total of 226 playgroups were operating in 29 (out of 31) municipalities, catering to around 7,500 toddlers. Boneschansker and Le Rütte (2000) mention a total of about 225 playgroups and between 25 and 30 day care centres in the province of Fryslân. In 2007 there were approximately 300 provisions in Fryslân (play groups and day care centres).\\
-In 1989 a few playgroups started their activities through the medium of Frisian, supported by the Stifting Pjutteboartersplak. The number of Frisian medium playgroups and day care centres has increased over the last years. Nowadays It Sintrum Frysktalige Berneopfang covers 55 bilingual or Frisian medium play groups and day care centres, catering to around 1300 children. In the Nota Boppeslach (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007) the ambition is stated to realise an increase in this number to more than 100 by the end of 2010.
-===== 3. Primary education =====
-==== target group ====
-Primary schools in the Netherlands cater to pupils aged between 4 and 12 (grades 1 to 8).
-==== structure ====
-An important feature of the educational structure in Fryslân are the small schools with an average of 125 pupils. In the school year 2000-2001, 24 percent of the primary schools in Fryslân had fewer than 60 pupils. Only 3 percent of schools have more than 300 pupils. There are many schools with combined classes, in which one teacher takes care of two or more grades. Nevertheless, in the past twenty years many schools in the province have merged. In 1988 there were about 572 primary schools while there were 492 in 2005. The total number of pupils remained much the same: 62,000.
-Special schools provide education for mentally and physically handicapped children and for children with learning disabilities. These schools, for children from the ages of 3 to 11 and/or from 12 to 20, are better equipped than ordinary primary and secondary schools because, for instance, the teacher-pupil ratio is much more favourable. The integration of disabled children into the ordinary school system has been advocated and this has happened more often over the past few years.
-There are two distinct types of special education. Firstly, there are special primary schools for children with learning difficulties (//Moeilijk// //Lerende// //Kinderen//, MLK) and for children with learning and behavioural difficulties (//Leer//- //en// //Opvoedings// //Moeilijkheden//, LOM). Most of these schools are regulated by the Primary Education Act (WPO, 1998) thus the legal arrangements for Frisian primary education apply to these schools too. Secondly, there is a Law for special education, the Wet op de Expertise Centra (WEC, 1999) that covers schooling for children with special needs. This type of special education concerns the schools for children with severe learning difficulties (//Zeer// //Moeilijk// //Lerende// //Kinderen//, ZMLK) and physically handicapped children. At these schools Frisian may be used as medium of instruction and Frisian can be taught as a subject. In practice, the position of Frisian in WEC schools is even weaker than at regular schools.
-==== legislation ====
-The current Primary Education Act //(Wet op het Primair Onderwijs//, 1998) lists a number of subjects that all primary schools have to teach without prescribing the number of hours or how and what schools should teach. Frisian is an obligatory subject and may be used as a medium of instruction. Schools may ask for exemption of this obligation from the provincial government. Only a few schools are exempted. However, 6% of all primary schools do not offer Frisian lessons at all (Inspectie van het Onderwijs 2006). According to the evaluation of the Committee of Experts (Council of Europe, 2004) the Netherlands’ legal provisions in this respect are not consistent with the signed undertakings concerning Frisian in primary schooling in Article 8 of the European Charter on Regional or Minority Languages. The Committee of Experts considers the time investment of only 45 minutes per week “intolerable”.
-In 1993, the Minister of Education defined attainment targets (//kerndoelen//) for the prescribed subjects. These targets were modified to some extent in 2006. The newly formulated targets are more in line with educational practice with respect to Frisian as a first and as a second language.
-Teachers’ qualification for Frisian is prescribed officially in the Primary Education Act, but in practice the teacher training colleges are responsible for the actual content and the examinations for this qualification.
-==== language use ====
-A study by the inspectorate (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2006) has shown that the majority of primary schools in Fryslân spends 30-60 minutes on one lesson of Frisian per week. Therefore, time devoted to Frisian is limited. This situation has been the same for the last decade and is the result of a gradual process that has been under way since the legislation of 1955.
-The position of Frisian as a medium of instruction is also modest. The inspectorate report reveals that only 15-20 percent of primary schools regularly use Frisian as medium of instruction insofar as ‘world studies’ and ‘arts’ are concerned (in grades 3 to 8). The Frisian Language Department (Taalsintrum Frysk) of CEDIN is currently promoting the approach of half a day of Frisian as medium of instruction.
-In the school year 1997-98, seven primary schools in Fryslân started an experiment with a trilingual school model (Dutch-Frisian-English) (Ytsma, 2000; Gorter, 2005). The experimental period has now finished, and the trilingual approach will be continued in a network in which more schools are involved. The ultimate goal is to establish full bilingualism as far as Frisian and Dutch are concerned. Regarding English, the goal is for communicative ability to be on a basic and functional linguistical level. To attain these goals, the three languages are not only being taught as subjects, but are also being used as instruction media. In theory, in grades 1 to 6, 50 percent of teaching time is in Frisian and 50 percent in Dutch. In grades 7 and 8, the division of teaching time is 40 percent Frisian, 40 percent Dutch, and 20 percent English. In practice, however, the experimental schools were more flexible with regard to the division of time. They will continue this flexibility. What has been expected on the basis of research elsewhere, has been confirmed in this project: more time investment in Frisian as a subject and as a medium of instruction does not have any negative effect on the language command in the dominant language (Dutch). In other words: at the end of primary school children show a balanced bilingualism. Furthermore, the earlier introduction of English is under consideration, also because the changed Primary Education Act of 2006 enables the early introduction of English as from grade 5.
-==== teaching material ====
-In 2006, a new Frisian-language teaching method, ‘Studio F’ was completed and introduced at primary level. Compared to the former teaching materials the new method is much better adapted and structured for being used in classes with pupils from different linguistic backgrounds. The method ‘Studio F’ contains more and better practical teaching methods and examples with regard to the differentiation of goals within the classroom. The method is aimed at the longitudinal teaching of the language and learning through the medium of Frisian. The method combines reading and writing skills with school television and IT tasks. Starting from the perspective that all pupils in the classroom, Frisian mother-tongue speakers as well as second language learners follow Frisian lessons at the same time and use the same teaching materials, these lessons are structured in such a way that mother-tongue speakers can achieve the highest levels of the attainment targets, while the second language learners work towards a lower level of language skills. Fortunately, the final result of this approach is that pupils are working together and in accordance with their capacities and language skills. This approach also contributes to the social integration of Frisian speaking children and second language speakers.
-Alongside with the Studio F method, the monthly magazine ‘Linkk’ is being issued in cooperation with Frisian school radio and television programmes. It is to be expected, that a certain number of primary schools will continue to limit their Frisian lessons to watching the Frisian school television programmes and using this magazine ‘Linkk’ as the only teaching material.
-==== statistics ====
-In the school year 2005-2006, there were about 62,000 children attending the 492 primary schools in Fryslân covered by the WPO. A number of 10 special schools were covered under the WEC.
-Few schools in non-Frisian speaking areas in Fryslân (mainly the Frisian islands) are exempt from having to provide Frisian lessons. In the Inspectorate report (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2006) it is mentioned that 67% of primary school teachers are qualified to teach Frisian. 21% of all Frisian lessons are taught by unqualified teachers. The tendency is, however, that younger teachers or teachers who have not grown up bilingually themselves, are more often unqualified.
-===== 4. Secondary education =====
-==== target group ====
-Secondary education in the Netherlands caters to students aged 12 to 16 or 18. VMBO lasts 4 years, HAVO 5 years, and VWO 6 years. Obligatory school attendance ends at the age of 18.\\
-structure
-Secondary education is divided into three different levels: pre-university education (VWO), higher general secondary education (HAVO) and pre-vocational education (VMBO). Compulsory education lasts until the age of 18. In 1993 a period of basic education (//basisvorming)// was introduced for all these types of secondary education. The basic education period lasts for two to three years depending on the school curriculum. It implies a common curriculum for all pupils, including general and technical subjects, although schools can differ considerably from each other in the actual organisation of the curriculum.
-==== legislation ====
-The introduction of basic education in 1993 (Wet op het Voortgezet Onderwijs - WVO) meant that Frisian became an obligatory subject in the lower grades of secondary education (art. 11b). Since 2006, the Provincial Government of Fryslân has the power to grant exemption from this obligation to individual schools (art. 11e). As a rule this grant is given for one year, but schools may ask for exemption from this obligation every year.
-Attainment targets are set for all school subjects in the lower grades of secondary education.
-Frisian is an optional exam subject in the higher grades of all three types of secondary education.
-==== language use ====
-Not all secondary schools have as yet implemented Frisian into their curriculum. The attainment targets for Frisian have been officially determined in educational legislation as from 2006. The new attainment targets for the lower grades differentiate between students with Frisian as their mother-tongue and those who speak Frisian as a second language. The Dutch State has supported the implementation of Frisian financially. A curriculum model and learning materials have been developed for Frisian as a subject in the lower grades. The survey conducted by the Inspectorate showed that, five years after the implementation of Frisian in basic education, Frisian had been developed only poorly as a school subject (Inspectie van het onderwijs, 1999). Another five years later, the situation has hardly been improved. More than a third of secondary schools in the province do not offer Frisian lessons to their students. The schools that do offer Frisian lessons mostly do so only in grade 1 for all students and in grade 2 as an optional subject. Those students who opt for Frisian as an exam subject take more lessons in the two last grades. In practice, this means that all pupils attend 40 Frisian lessons in the first year of their secondary education and only a few in higher grades. Given these figures it is obvious that students cannot achieve the attainment targets for Frisian that are prescribed for the lower grades of secondary education.
-Despite positive initiatives with respect to the development of the curriculum, teaching materials, and the use of IT-methods, there is still no clear concept at school level of Frisian as a subject and the use of Frisian as a medium of instruction. Most teachers do not differentiate between mother-tongue speakers and second language learners, and there is no exchange of information between primary and secondary schools on the curriculum, teaching methods, or results of language learning (Inspectie van het onderwijs, 2006).
-National exams are composed by the CITO (National Institute for Educational Assessment) on behalf of the Dutch Ministry of Education. This means that the composition and approval of exams is not the responsibility of schools or regional authorities. CITO has set the exams for Frisian since 1973, even when the number of students is very low. In the school year 2004-2005, in total 73 students took an exam for Frisian in VMBO, HAVO, or VWO. These exams are approved by the governmental Commission for exam questions, CEVO.
-As far as Frisian in the higher grades is concerned, only a small percentage of pupils decides to choose Frisian and few of them take a final exam in Frisian. In the school year 2005, 73 students took a final examination in Frisian.
-It is permitted to teach through the medium of Frisian in all types of secondary education. However, the use of Frisian in instruction is rare. In 1999, 69 percent of all secondary schools stated that they did not use Frisian as a formal teaching language, 30 percent of schools did so incidentally and 1 percent reported using Frisian as medium of instruction on a regular basis (Inspectie van het onderwijs, 1999). This situation has not changed.
-Based on the above statistics, it can be concluded that the position of Frisian as medium of instruction at secondary-school level is marginal, and that there certainly is no monolingual Frisian secondary education in Fryslân nor bilingual education with Frisian and Dutch on an equal footing. The Committee of Experts of the European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages concluded in the evaluation report that the signed undertaking concerning Frisian in secondary education is not fulfilled. The Council of Europe strongly recommended the Dutch government to take measures for the improvement of Frisian in secondary education. (Council of Europe, 2004).
-==== teaching material ====
-In order to implement Frisian as a compulsory subject in the lower grades of secondary education, a new method for Frisian lessons was developed with extra differentiation materials, a teachers guide, and special material for listening in 1993. After ten years, however, this method, known as //Flotwei Frysk// (Frisian Smoothly), has been replaced by a more modern one: //Freemwurk// (= Framework). This method explicitly aims at achieving the official key objectives, is well structured for differentiation, and includes IT methods of learning. //Freemwurk// has been developed by a team of teachers in cooperation with the Frisian Language Department of CEDIN.
-At the same time new teaching materials have been developed for the highest grades of secondary education. These methods have been structured according to the exam programmes of respectively VMBO, HAVO, and VWO. All these methods can be used together with the Frisian school television programmes and the monthly Linkk magazine as well as with assistance of the electronic learning environment in ‘Digischool’.
-==== statistics ====
-In the province of Fryslân, 30 schools provide pre-university education, general secondary education and/or pre-vocational education at 58 locations, involving about 37,000 pupils (Inspectie van het onderwijs, 2006)
-===== 5. Vocational education =====
-==== target group ====
-Senior vocational education (MBO) is aimed at students aged 16 to 19, who have passed the exams of pre-vocational training (VMBO). MBO schools are also accessible for students who have completed the first four years of HAVO respectively VWO as well as for adult students without a diploma of general secondary education.
-==== structure ====
-Senior vocational education covers three types of vocational training for pupils aged 16 to 19. These are senior secondary vocational education (MBO), an apprenticeship, and learning and training provided in the context of schemes for the unemployed. MBO education is mostly provided by regional centres for education and training (ROCs) (see [[:rd:frisian#vocational_education|5. Vocational education]]). There are two ROCs in Fryslân (//Friesland College// and //Friese Poort//) that provide MBO education and an Agricultural Training Centre (//AOC Fryslân). // These three schools offer a range of courses in the following sectors: technology/engineering, social services and health care, economics and administration, and agriculture. This section focuses on senior vocational education as this involves the majority of students and is full-time.
-==== legislation ====
-A new Education and Vocational Training Act, regulating adult education and vocational training came into effect in 1996 (Wet Educatie en Beroepsonderwijs - WEB). It aims at a better integration of educational provisions and the demands of society, the labour market, and individuals. The main consequence of these regulations is the establishment of regional centres for education and training (ROCs) providing a coherent structure for all forms of education and training.
-==== language use ====
-In general, Frisian has no formal position in the curricula for vocational education since Frisian is not included in the normal timetable. However, within agricultural education, a sector with around one thousand students, Frisian is regularly used as medium of instruction, and sometimes self made Frisian learning materials are also used. Moreover, these students can choose Frisian as an optional part of the programme.
-In the economics and administration sectors, Frisian can be chosen as a subject as part of the secretarial training programme. The social services and health care training programmes have developed a module of multilingualism with some attention for Frisian. In this module students learn how to deal with multilingualism in their future position as a nurse, social worker, or day care leader. The school recommends non-Frisian speaking students to follow a language course. Modules for Frisian are being prepared in co-operation with the //Afûk//, as part of the training course and as in-service training. Students who have taken this module can be offered an apprenticeship in the day care centres of the //Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang//.
-==== teaching material ====
-No Frisian materials are published for vocational education.
-==== statistics ====
-In the school year 2006-2007 nearly 22,000 students were enrolled in senior vocational education in Fryslân.
-===== 6. Higher education =====
-==== structure ====
-Higher education includes higher professional education (HBO), university education (WO), and distance learning at higher educational level through the Open University (Open Universiteit - OU). Three institutes for higher professional education (HBOs) are located in Ljouwert/Leeuwarden, the capital of Fryslân: //Christelijke Hogeschool Nederland// (CHN), the //Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden// (NHL), and the //Van Hall Larenstein Institute//. The first two institutes offer a wide range of courses, including teacher training, hotel management, public and business administration, technical courses, and nursing. The //Van Hall Larenstein Institute// offers courses mainly in the field of agriculture and environmental management. There is no university in Fryslân. However, there is intensive cooperation between the HBO institutes in Fryslân and various universities in the Netherlands. The University of Groningen offers students the possibility to take the first year (//propedeuse) // of the law degree in Ljouwert. Van Hall Larenstein offers various studies and research opportunities in cooperation with Wageningen University. In addition, three research institutes, which offer PhD positions, are based in Leeuwarden / Ljouwert: Cartesius for sustainable innovations, Wetsus for watermanagement, and the Wadden Academy that focuses on all aspects of the Waddensea and its islands.
-Frisian language and literature can be studied as a main subject (bachelor and master degree) at the University of Amsterdam and the University of Groningen. At the University of Groningen students can, if they want, devote all 4 years of their university studies to Frisian language, literature, and culture, whereas students at the University of Amsterdam must integrate their Frisian studies with related subjects. In the school year 2007-2008, fifteen students were enrolled for Frisian as a main subject at these universities. Besides that, Frisian can be taken as an additional subject at Leiden University.
-=== legislation ===
-Higher Education in the Netherlands is regulated by the Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (WHW); the Higher Education and Scientific Research Act. There is a difference between Higher Vocational Education (HBO) and University Education (WO): HBO education lasts 4 years and results in a bachelor’s degree, while University Education lasts either 3 years, resulting in a bachelor’s degree, or 4 years resulting in a master’s degree.
-=== language use ===
-Dutch educational legislation declares Dutch to be the medium of instruction in higher education. Tertiary institutes are obliged to make a language regulation in which all exceptions to this rule (e.g. Frisian or English as medium of instruction) are laid down. The three Frisian institutes for higher professional education have regulated the use of Frisian in various ways. Generally speaking, Frisian as medium of instruction is only used partly in teacher training. In other courses, the medium is Dutch and on some occasions a foreign language is used, e.g. the CHN hotel management school uses English for some subjects. Nevertheless, students in most disciplines are allowed to write theses in Frisian, although this rarely happens.
-At university level, Frisian is used as a medium of instruction for Frisian studies only.
-=== teacher training ===
-Teacher training for the primary level is provided by the Christelijke Hogeschool Nederland (CHN) and the Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden (NHL), while training for the secondary level is provided by the NHL.
-//primary training//
-Initial teacher training for primary school teachers is carried out at teacher training institutes attached to the HBOs. These training courses for primary teachers take four years. It is also possible to attend a teacher-training course on a part-time basis, in which case the total duration of the course is longer (up to six years). Teacher training at the institutes is organised in line with an ‘integrated model’: the course contains both theoretical and practical aspects of teaching. Students spend a substantial part of their study time at primary school as a trainee. In this traineeship all didactic skills and all subjects of education are integrated. Students who graduate from a teacher-training institute acquire an HBO degree and may adopt the title of bachelor.
-As Frisian is a compulsory subject within Frisian primary schools, Frisian as a subject is incorporated into the primary level teacher-training programme. Both HBOs are developing a common curriculum for Frisian as a subject as well as for the use of Frisian as a medium of instruction within their own institutes. During the first two years of their four-year training programme, students must attend a Frisian language course. During those two years, there are separate streams for Frisian and non-Frisian speaking students. Frisian is optional in the third year. By completing the whole programme, students obtain the formal certificate qualifying them to teach Frisian at primary level. The certificate is worth 9 ECTS for students from non-Frisian speaking homes and 7 ECTS for students with Frisian as a mother-tongue. Most students at either of the HBOs obtain the required certificate, but this does not always imply a fluent command of the Frisian language. Research on reported language skills has shown that 98 percent of the primary teachers understands Frisian, 85 percent speaks Frisian well or fluently, 81 percent can read the language well or fluently, and 69 percent claims to be able to write sufficiently, well, or fluently in Frisian (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2006). The inspectorate’s survey of 2001 revealed that 38 percent of teachers at primary level were not (officially) qualified to teach Frisian (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 2001). This percentage is decreasing, but yet a substantial part of Frisian primary schools always lacks adequately qualified teachers.
-//secondary training//
-Teacher training for those who intend to become teachers at secondary schools is divided into two levels. A grade-two certificate is required to teach at VMBO schools and in grades 1-3 of HAVO and VWO schools and a grade-one certificate is needed for grades 4-5/6 of HAVO and VWO and for HBOs. Both certificates are offered at the NHL; the grade two certificate both as a full-time and as a part-time course. Once a grade-two course has been successfully completed, students can enrol in a grade-one course. The grade-one course is also accessible for post-university students. The grade two course lasts 4 years, in addition the grade one course another three years of part time study. Each study year is the equivalent of 60 ECTS.
-The curriculum of the grade one course is structured in a similar way to courses of other school languages (Dutch, English, German, French, and Spanish). The study contents are divided into the following sections: improving the student’s own language command in all competencies up to level C1; grammar and syntax; literature and youth literature; history of Fryslân; and learning and training of didactic skills. The initial training of didactic skills is carried out in a joined approach with other school subjects.
-Students spend a substantial part of their study time at school as a trainee: full-time students two weeks in the first year, three to four days a week for 8 weeks in the second and third year, and half the school week during the whole of the fourth year. Part-time students spend 60-80 hours at secondary school in the second year of their study and another 120-140 hours in the third year.
-//in-service training//
-Different institutions are involved in providing in-service training for Frisian. The teacher training institutes as well as the Frisian language department of CEDIN all play a role. In-service training courses are mainly focused on the language competencies of the teachers, as well as on the didactic aspects of new teaching methods.
-==== statistics ====
-In the school year 2006-2007 the number of students in higher professional education (HBO) in Fryslân was approximately 17.000 in total: 10,000 at the NHL, 5,000 at the CHN, and 2,000 at Van Hall Larenstein. <font inherit/inherit;;inherit;;inherit>Around 1,500,482 of those were in teacher training for primary education and around 2,000</font>    for secondary education, for a large range of disciplines. In the school year 2006-2007, 15 students opted to qualify as a teacher for Frisian in secondary education, of which 2 were full-time students.
-The number of students of Frisian as a main subject at the universities of Groningen and Amsterdam was around 15 in the school year 2006-2007. In addition, a few dozen of university students of other subjects took a course or module of Frisian as part of their curriculum.
-===== 7. Adult education =====
-==== structure and language courses ====
-The two Regional Education Centres (ROCs), //Friesland College// and //Friese Poort//, both also provide various adult education courses. The vocational training sector includes senior secondary vocational education (MBO) and other forms of apprenticeship learning. The courses are offered at four different levels.
-The adult-education sector consists of four departments and is meant for those who have passed the age limit (18) for compulsory education. These are: (1) general secondary education courses (HAVO and VWO courses); (2) courses directed towards operating in society, including language skills (including Frisian for those living in Fryslân), arithmetic, and social skills; (3) Dutch as a second language (for immigrants); and (4) other courses aimed at self-development.
-Special attention should be given to the activities of the Afûk. The Afûk offers evening classes to adult students of Frisian (both first and second-language students) and also produces teaching and learning materials. Afûk courses are subsidised by the province of Fryslân and by a number of municipalities. Around 1,000 people attend Afûk-language classes each year. The Afûk also provides courses for distance learning. For this purpose teaching and learning materials are digitalised within the project ‘Edufrysk’. The lessons and materials are downloadable from the website [[http://www.afuk.nl|www.afuk.nl]].
-Fryslân has a cultural college (//the Fryske Folkshegeskoalle Schylgeralân) // that offers informal education to adults covering a broad spectrum of subjects, including activities concerning the Frisian language and culture. An intensive language learning course of two weeks is scheduled annually, which is organised in collaboration with Afûk.
-==== language use ====
-Frisian can be used as an element of a literacy course. Most courses make little use of Frisian in their programmes (cf. Noordermeer & Renkema, 1995). Specific teaching material has been developed for the teaching and learning of basic skills in Frisian, which takes the first language of adult native speakers of Frisian into account. In general the position of Frisian in adult education is marginal.
-==== statistics ====
-In 2006, 886 people took a Frisian course at the Afûk for oral skills, and 67 took a course for Frisian writing skills. 246 students got a diploma.
-===== 8. Educational research =====
-==== bilingual education ====
-Educational research into (the effects of) bilingual education in Fryslân is rather scarce. Worthy of mention are the inventories carried out by the inspectorate (Inspectie van het onderwijs, 1989, 1999, 2001 & 2006). These reports provide basic data on many aspects of Frisian at primary and secondary school level, e.g. the amount of time spent on Frisian as a school subject and as medium of instruction. A detailed description of all aspects concerning Frisian in education from pre-primary provisions to higher education and adult education is available in the periodical reports that are submitted by the national government of the Netherlands to the Council of Europe[[:rd:lt:font_12pt_times_new_roman_serif:black:inherit_1_lt:font|/font>]] .
-Within the European perspective, initiatives have been taken with regard to the application of the Common European Framework of Reference for Frisian by defining so called “can do”-statements as well as good examples of the Language Portfolio. Furthermore, the position and the results of Frisian in education have been analysed in European perspective in the report ‘The Development of Minimum Standards for Education in Regional and Minority Languages’ (De Jager & Van der Meer, 2007).
-==== language proficiency ====
-De Jong and Riemersma conducted a research project in which the language proficiency in both Frisian and Dutch at the end of primary school were tested on equal footing for the first time; they used comparative tests based on the national tests for Dutch at the end of primary school (1994). The authors concluded that proficiency in Dutch was adequate or good, whereas proficiency in Frisian left much to be desired, with reading, oral, and writing skills yielding particularly mediocre results.
-==== quality of Frisian ====
-Furthermore, Ytsma (1995) investigated the ’quality’ of Frisian among Frisian and Dutch-speaking pupils in primary-school grades 5 and 8, as well as their attitude towards and motivation for learning Frisian. Ytsma concluded that among the Frisian children tested Dutch had affected the quality of their Frisian and that Dutch children’s attitudes towards Frisian were often negative.
-==== trilingual education ====
-The Fryske Akademy conducts scientific research into the trilingual-education project which was set up in cooperation with the Frisian Language Department of CEDIN by monitoring the children’s linguistic progress longitudinally. Results from the first two years show that Frisian children (aged 4-6) are already capable bilingual speakers, whereas their Dutch schoolmates have not yet developed a command of Frisian comparable to L1 proficiency. Results after 8 years show that there is no difference with regard to the command of Dutch between children from the project schools and those of the control schools. Frisian speaking children have the same command of Dutch as those from Dutch speaking homes. Contrary to the expectations the children of the project schools do not achieve higher results with regard to the command of English than pupils from the control schools. The fact that most schools used English as a medium of instruction for less than 20% of their teaching time may explain this result (Van Ruijven & Ytsma, 2007).
-As part of the research related to the Nota Boppeslach (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007) a special research project will be carried out concerning trilingual schooling from 2007-2010.
-==== forthcoming research ====
-Actual research concerning Frisian in education which is carried out at the Fryske Akademy over the last years, was concentrated on the developments and results of trilingual schooling as well as the development of minimum standards for education in regional or minority languages in Europe.
-In the coming years research project will concentrate on the improvement of the quality of teaching and will focus on the comparisons between language command of Dutch and Frisian of pupils at several stages of primary school.
-Over the last years a special research project for the youngest children has been carried out, to wit the development of a language instrument for assessing the language skills of children of 1 year 9 months up and until 4 year 2 months. The main research question is the sequence of the acquisition of language structures in Frisian (Dijkstra, J., forthcoming).
-In the years 2007-2011, as an integral part of the provincial policies towards the increase of Frisian at school and towards the improvement of teaching and learning of Frisian in all stages of the education career, a series of research projects will be carried out. One focus will be on the comparison of linguistic competencies in both Frisian and Dutch in all stages, from pre-school provisions until the end of compulsory schooling. Another focus of research will be on the achievement of key objectives in both primary and secondary education, on the adequate use of new teaching books such as Studio F and Freemwurk, in particular aimed at the acquisition of vocabulary, reading skills and the attitude towards reading skills and towards linguistic diversity.
-===== 9. Prospects =====
-==== pre-school education ====
-At pre-school level, the amount of monolingual Frisian pre-school provisions is expected to increase slowly. The policy of the Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang is deliberately aimed at an increase in the number of Frisian pre-school provisions to 100 by the year 2010. These ambitions are supported by the provincial government of Fryslân (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007). Another aim is to influence Partoer and the ROCs in their education policies with regard to the awareness raising of multilingualism in society and the assets of personal plurilingualism.
-==== primary education ====
-Issues in primary schooling include coping with a multilingual and multicultural school population. This also relates to the growing number of immigrant children in the province.
-A problem is how to motivate schools further to teach Frisian adequately. Nowadays, primary schools are confronted with many far-reaching administrative and organisational changes. In light of all these changes, it will be important for them to keep their attention focused on Frisian education. In relation to this, it may be important to mention that in 2001 the province of Fryslân and the central government of the Netherlands agreed to invest more money in Frisian education. In practice, however, central government tends to decentralise the responsibility for Frisian in education to the province and to freeze the financial contribution from national resources. A positive development in this respect is the appointment of an inspector with special responsibility for Frisian at both primary and secondary level. A concrete result of this appointment is the introduction of the renewed frame of reference for Frisian in education, aimed at the evaluation of Frisian lessons. The frame of reference also aims at the improvement of the quality of all aspects of teaching and learning of Frisian and at stimulating the improvement of explicit language policy at school level. The frame of reference will be applied by all inspectors inspecting schools in Fryslân.
-==== secondary education ====
-At secondary school level, the implementation of Frisian as a compulsory subject for all students has not yet achieved the results that were expected of the change of the Education law in 1993. It is clear that the future position of Frisian in secondary education will be a major issue in the years to come. The ambitions of the Provincial Government of extending trilingual education to secondary schools, which includes the use Frisian and English as medium of instruction, worth mentioning in this respect (Provinsje Fryslân, 2007).
-==== higher education ====
-The teacher-training colleges of NHL and CHN are currently developing a common curriculum for Frisian aimed at setting criteria for the qualification ‘Frisian’ for primary schooling. In the years to come, the cooperation between teacher training for primary schooling and for secondary education will focus on the longitudinal approach of trilingual education in Fryslân.
-===== 10. Summary statistics =====
-//Number of schools and student enrolment in Fryslân in the school year 2006-2007//((Data are based on: Provinsje Fryslân (2007) Fryslân in cijfers and the various websites of the educational institutes in Fryslân.))
-|   \\  **Type of education**    |   \\  **number of schools**    |   \\  **enrolment**    |
-|   \\ Pre-primary education |   \\ 300 |   \\ 7,500 |
-|   \\ Primary education |   \\ 486 |   \\ 62,815 |
-|   \\ Special primary education |   \\ 13 |   \\ 2,050 |
-|   \\ Secondary education* |   \\ 30 (58 locations) |   \\ 60,670 |
-|   \\ Special secondary education |   \\ 17 |   \\ 2,377 |
-|   \\ Senior Vocational education |   \\ 3 |   \\ 22,000 |
-|   \\ Higher education |   \\ 3 |   \\ 17,000 |
-<font 10.0pt/inherit;;inherit;;inherit>* data for the school year 2005-2006</font>
-\\
-===== References and further reading =====
-==== regulations ====
-//main official texts regulating the teaching of Frisian//
-**1937 Amendment to the Primary Education Act of 1920 **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1937, 323)
-Frisian is permitted as an optional subject in primary education under the classification of vernacular language (Frisian was not yet explicitly mentioned in the Act).
-**1948 Amendment to the Secondary Education Act **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1948, 127)
-Secondary schools are given the opportunity, after obtaining the consent of the Minister, to provide tuition in subjects other than those listed in the Act (Frisian was not yet explicitly mentioned in the Act).
-In 1948, the Minister of Education provided financial support for Frisian as an optional subject at secondary schools.
-**1952 Royal Decree to amend the University Statute **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1952, 635)
-Frisian could be chosen as a main subject in higher education (introduction of the ‘//doctoraal//’ (university degree) examination of Frisian).
-**1955 Amendment to the Primary Education Act 1920 **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1955, 225)
-Frisian was explicitly mentioned as an optional subject in primary education.
-Frisian was also permitted as a medium of instruction in the first forms of primary schools.
-**1967 Amendment to the Secondary Education Act 1963 **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1967, 386)
-Frisian allowed as an optional subject in secondary education from 1968 onwards;
-in the first form of secondary schools the subject of Frisian could be included within the number of teaching hours permitted by law.
-**1970 Royal Decree **
-Regulating the final examinations in pre-university education (VWO), senior general secondary education (HAVO), and junior general secondary education (MAVO) (Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1970, 151).
-Frisian permitted as an optional final examination subject at the higher levels of secondary education (VWO, HAVO, and MAVO schools).
-**1974 Amendment to the Primary Education Act **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1974, 271)
-Frisian taught as an ordinary subject in all primary schools in the province of Fryslân from 1980 onwards (the Provincial Executive of Fryslân was given the power to grant exemptions).
-Frisian permitted as medium of instruction in all grades of primary education.
-**1982 Interim Act on special education and special secondary education (ISOVSO) **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1982, 730)
-Frisian permitted as a language of instruction in special primary and secondary education.
-**1988 Amendment to ISOVSO of 1982 **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1988, 559)
-Frisian language and culture to be a compulsory subject in schools for special education and special secondary education.
-Frisian allowed as a subject in schools for special secondary education.
-**1992 Amendment to the Secondary Education Act **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1992, 270)
-Frisian becomes an ordinary subject in basic education at all secondary schools in the province of Fryslân from 1/8/1993 onwards.
-**1993 Primary Education Key Objectives Order**
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1993, 264)
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1998, 354)
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 2005, 551)
-Order adopting key objectives for all subjects in primary education; also adopting key objectives for the subject of Frisian.
-**2004 Wet op de Kinderopvang**
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 2004, 455)
-**2006 Amendment to the Secondary Education Act **
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 2006, 281)
-(Provincial Government of Fryslân given the power to grant exemption of Frisian as a compulsory subject to individual schools).
-**2006 Secondary Education Key Objectives Order**
-(Bulletin of Acts and Orders 2006, 316)
-Key objectives for the lower grades of secondary education, including objectives for Frisian as a subject, with differentiation between speakers of Frisian as a first or second language.\\
-The following education laws have not changed the legal position regarding Frisian:
-//Wet op het Basis Onderwijs, 1985 //
-//Wet op het voortgezet onderwijs (WVO), 1993//
-//Wet Educatie en Beroepsonderwijs (WEB), 1996//
-//Wet op het Primair Onderwijs (WPO), 1998 //
-//Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (WHW), 1992//
-//Wet op de Expertise Centra (WEC), 1999//
-**Reports and policy documents on the Frisian language in the Netherlands**
-**1970** Government position of 1970 on the report of the **Van Ommen Committee** on Frisian-language policy (Annexes to Proceedings II, 1969-1970, 10728, no. 1)
-**1989, 1993, 2001 Bestjoersôfspraak Fryske Taal en Kultuer (BFTK)**
-Covenant (= Administrative agreement) on the Frisian language and culture between the central government and the province of Fryslân on the policy with regard to Frisian.
-Originally drafted in 1989 and renewed in 1993 and 2001 (Staatscourant 2001, nr. 125).
-**European and international conventions relevant to the Frisian language and culture**
-**1950** Signature by the Netherlands of the **European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms**, concluded in Rome in 1950 (Dutch Treaty Series 1951,154). Contains a provision prohibiting discrimination on the basis of language.
-**1954** Act approving for the Netherlands the **European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.**
-Instrument of ratification, 31 August 1954 (cf. Dutch Treaty Series 1954,151)
-**1978** Act approving for the Netherlands the** International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights**, concluded in New York in 1966 (Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1978,624).
-Instrument of ratification, 11 December 1978 (cf. Dutch Treaty 1978, 177)
-**1992** Signature by the Netherlands of the **European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages**, concluded at Strasbourg in 1992 (Dutch Treaty Series 1995, nos.73 and 197).
-**1996** Act approving for the Netherlands the **European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages**, concluded at Strasbourg in 1992 (Bulletin of Acts and Orders 1996, 136).
-The Netherlands undertakes to be bound by 48 provisions of Part III of the Charter regarding the Frisian language in the province of Fryslân.
-Instrument of acceptance, 2 May 1996 (cf. Dutch Treaty Series 1998, 20).
-\\
-**2005 ** Act approving for the Netherlands the **Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities**, concluded at Strasbourg in 1995 (Bulletin of Acts and Orders 2004, 681; Dutch Treaty Series 2005, 77).
-==== publications ====
-Boneschansker, E. (2006). //Evaluaasje Frysktalige berne-opfang 2003-2006.// Ljouwert: Bureau Beleidsonderzoek.
-Boneschansker, E., & Le Rütte, M. (2000). //Pjuttepraat: Friestaligheid in peuterspeelzalen en kinderdagverblijven.// Economisch Bureau Coulon: Leeuwarden.
-Council of Europe (2001). //Application of the Charter in the Netherlands: A. Report of the Committee of Experts on the Charter. B. Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on the application of the Charter by the Netherlands.// Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
-Council of Europe (2004). //Application of the Charter in the Netherlands, 2nd monitoring cycle: A. Report of the Committee of Experts on the Charter. B. Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe.// Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
-Dekkers, A. (1995). //Teacher training of minority languages in primary and secondary education.// (Vols. 1-3). Ljouwert/Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy/ Mercator-Education.
-Dijk, K.J. van (1987). Language policy in Fryslân: Diverging concepts. //International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 64//, 37-45.
-Duipmans, D. (1984). //Frisian in playgroups and kindergartens: A survey of the use of Frisian and Dutch in playgroups and kindergartens in Friesland.// Leeuwarden: Provinsiale Underwiisried.\\
-<font inherit/inherit;;inherit;;yellow>Dijkstra, J. (forthcoming). // F-TARSP // //: Fryske Taal Analyze Remediearring en Screening Proseduere, taalûntwikkelingsynstrumint foar Fryske bern fan 1;9 o/m 4;2 jier// [working title]. Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy.
-//European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages// (1992). European Treaty Series/Série des traités européens 148. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
-//Framework Convention on the protection of National Minorities// (1995). European Treaty Series/série des traités européens 157. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
-Fryske Akademy (1999). //European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Netherlands: Frisian: Report on the measures taken by the Netherlands with regard to the Frisian language and culture.// The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations.
-Fryske Akademy (2003). //European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Netherlands: Frisian. Report on the measures taken by the Netherlands with regard to the Frisian language and culture, 1999-2001.// The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations.
-Fryske Akademy (2007). //European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Netherlands: Frisian. Report on the measures taken by the Netherlands with regard to the Frisian language and culture, 2002-2005.// The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations.
-Goot, A.Sj. van der, W.J.T. Renkema, & Stuijt, M.B. (Eds.) (1994). //Pre-primary education.// Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Gorter, D. (2005). Three languages of instruction in Fryslân. //International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 171//, 57-73.
-Gorter, D. et al. (1988). //Language in Friesland.// Ljouwert/Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Gorter, D., & Jonkman, R.J. (1995). //Taal yn Fryslân op ’e nij besjoen//. Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy.
-Gorter, D., Riemersma, A.M.J., & Ytsma, J. (2001). Frisian in the Netherlands. In: G. Extra and D. Gorter (Eds.), //The other languages of Europe: Demographic, sociolinguistic and educational perspectives// (pp. 103-118). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
-Inspectie van het onderwijs [Education Inspectorate] (1989). //Het onderwijs in het Fries op de basisschool: Stand van zaken 1988-1989.// Den Haag: Sdu.
-Inspectie van het Onderwijs [Education Inspectorate] (1999). //Fries in de basisvorming: Evaluatie van de eerste vijf jaar//. Den Haag: Sdu.
-Inspectie van het Onderwijs [Education Inspectorate] (2001). //Inspectierapport// [Inspectorate Report . //Het onderwijs in het Fries op de basisscholen in Fryslân://// De stand van zaken.// Den Haag: Sdu.
-Inspectie van het Onderwijs [Education Inspectorate] (2006). //Inspectierapport [Inspectorate Report] no. 2006-21. De kwaliteit van het vak Fries in het basisonderwijs en het voortgezet onderwijs in de provincie Fryslân.// Den Haag: Sdu.
-Jager, B. de, & Van der Meer, C. (2007). //The Development of Minimum Standards on Language Education in Regional and Minority Languages.// Ljouwert/Leeuwarden: Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning.
-Jong, S. de, & Riemersma, A.M.J. (1994). //Taalpeiling yn Fryslân: Onderzoek naar de beheersing van het Fries en het Nederlands aan het einde van de basisschool.// Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy.
-Noordermeer, M., & Renkema W.J. (1995). //Meartaligens yn de basisedukaasje yn Fryslân/Meertaligheid in de basiseducatie in Fryslân.// Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Popkema, J. & Jongsma, H. (Eds.). (2007). //Ramtlearplan 2007: Frysk yn it fuortset ûnderwiis.// Ljouwert: Afûk.
-Provinsje Fryslân (2006). //Boppeslach: Onderwijsnota provinsje Fryslân.//
-Provinsje Fryslân (2007). //Fryslân in cijfers.// [[:http:www.fryslan.nl_fic2003_start.htm|http://www.fryslan.nl/fic2003/start.htm]]]
-//Rapport van de Commissie Friese-taalpolitiek.// (1970) ’s-Gravenhage: Ministerie van Cultuur, Recreatie en Maatschappelijk Werk (Tweede Kamer zitting 1969-1970, 10728).
-Riemersma, A.M.J. (1994). Stân fan saken nei ien jier Frysk yn de basisfoarming. //De Pompeblêden, 65//, 54-59.
-Ruijven, B. van, & Ytsma, J. (2007). //Trijetalige skoalle yn Fryslân: Onderzoek naar de opbrengsten van het drietalige onderwijsmodel in Fryslân.// Ljouwert/Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.\\
-Sikma, J.A., & Gorter, D. (1991). //European lesser-used languages in primary education, inventory and proceedings of the colloquy.// Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Tjeerdsma, R.S. (1995). The Mercator-Education network. In E.N. Dheá (Ed.), //The lesser-used languages and teacher education: Towards the promotion of the European dimension.// M.N. Ollscoil Shamhraidh / Summer University held in Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, 1-3 July 1994.
-Tjeerdsma, R.S., & Sikma, J.A. (1994). //Provision of learning materials: For primary and pre-primary education.// Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Ytsma, J., & Jong, S. de (1993). Frisian. In G. Extra and L. Verhoeven (Eds.), //Community languages in the Netherlands // (pp. 29-50). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.
-Ytsma, J. (1995). //Frisian as a first and second language: Socio-linguistic and socio-psychological aspects in the acquisition of Frisian among Frisian and Dutch primary school children//. Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy.
-Ytsma, J. (2000). Trilingual Primary Education in Fryslân. In J. Cenoz and U. Jessner (Eds.), //English in Europe: The acquisition of a third language // (222-235). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
-Ytsma, J., & Beetsma, D. (2001). Drietalig basisonderwijs in Fryslân. //Moer, Tijdschrift voor het Onderwijs in het Nederlands//, //1//, 3-10.
-Ytsma, J. (2002). Case study: An experiment with trilingual primary education in Friesland. In Beetsma, D. (Ed.), //Trilingual primary education in Europe: Inventory of the provisions for trilingual primary education in minority language communities of the European Union// (pp. 51-58). Ljouwert / Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy / Mercator Education.
-Zondag, K. (Ed.) (1993). //Bilingual education in Fryslân: Facts and prospects//. Ljouwert/Leeuwarden: GCO/MSU.
-==== Addresses ====
-=== official bodies ===
-**Provinsje Fryslân**
-Snekertrekweg 1
-P.O. Box 20120
-HM Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-2925925
-F +31-58-2925125
-W [[http://www.fryslan.nl|www.fryslan.nl]]
-**Berie foar it Frysk**
-Frisian Language Board
-p/a Provinsjehûs
-P.O. Box 20120
-HM Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-The Netherlands
-T +31-58-2925878
-F +31-58-2925124
-E berie@fryslan.nl
-W [[http://www.berie.nl|www.berie.nl]]
-=== scientific research ===
-**Fryske Akademy**
-Research institute for Fryslân and its people, language and culture
-Doelestrjitte 8
-P.O.Box 54
-AB Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-2131414
-F +31-58-2131409
-E fa@fa.knaw.nl
-W [[http://www.fa.knaw.nl|www.fa.knaw.nl]]
-=== educational advice ===
-**CEDIN-Fryslân/Taalsintrum Frysk**
-School advisory centre/Frisian language department
-Oostergowei 6
-PG Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-2843434
-F +31-58-2880585
-E info@cedin.nl / frysk@cedin.nl
-W [[http://www.cedin.nl|www.cedin.nl]] / [[http://www.taalsintrumfrysk.nl|www.taalsintrumfrysk.nl]]
-**Afûk (Algemiene Fryske Underrjocht Kommisje)**
-adult education centre/publisher
-Bûterhoeke 3
-P.O. Box 53
-AB Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-2343070
-F +31-58-2159475
-E ynfo@afuk.nl
-W [[http://www.afuk.nl|www.afuk.nl]]
-**It sintrum foar Frysktalige Berne-opfang**
-Organisation for Frisian-medium playgroups and day care centres
-P.O. Box 298
-BB Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-2348525
-E ynfo@sfbo.nl
-=== Frisian organisations ===
-**Ried fan de Fryske Beweging**
-Council of the Frisian Movement
-Keetwaltsje 1
-EV Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-T +31-58-213 8913
-E info@fryskebeweging.nl
-W [[http://www.fryskebeweging.nl|www.fryskebeweging.nl]]
-**FYK, Jongereinferiening Frysk Ynternasjonaal Kontakt**
-Youngster Association for Frisian International Contact
-P.O.Box 2548
-AA Ljouwert/Leeuwarden
-E ynfo@fyk.nl
-W [[http://www.fyk.nl|www.fyk.nl]]
-==== Further internet sources ====
-**CHN** (teacher training college) – [[http://www.chn.nl|www.chn.nl]]
-**CITO**group (Central Institute for Toetsontwikkeling) – [[http://www.cito.nl|www.cito.nl]]
-**Education Inspectorate** – [[http://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl|www.onderwijsinspectie.nl]]
-**Friese Poort** (regional education centre) – [[http://www.friesepoort.nl|www.friesepoort.nl]]
-**Friesland College** (regional education centre) – [[http://www.frieslandcollege.nl|www.frieslandcollege.nl]]
-**NHL** (teacher training college) – [[http://www.nhl.nl|www.nhl.nl]]
-**Provinsje Fryslân** – [[http://www.fryslan.nl|www.fryslan.nl]]
-**TRESOAR** (Frisian historical and literary centre) – [[http://www.tresoar.nl|www.tresoar.nl]]
-**SLO** (National Association for Curriculum Development) – [[http://www.slo.nl|www.slo.nl]]
-**Omrop Fryslân** (regional broadcasting company) – [[http://www.omropfryslan.nl|www.omropfryslan.nl]]
-General website on Frisian language and culture – [[http://www.kultuerside.nl/|www.kultuerside.nl/]]
-==== Other websites on minority languages ====
-//**[[http://www.mercator-network.eu/|mercator networ]]k** //
-General site of the Mercator-project. It will lead you to the three specialised centres:
-//[[http://www.mercator-research.eu|Mercator Research Centre]]//
-Homepage of the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning. The website contains the series of regional dossiers, a database with organisations, a bibliography, and many related links to minority languages.
-//Mercator-Media//
-Homepage of Mercator-Media. It provides information on media and minority languages in the EU.
-//[[http://www.ciemen.org/mercator|Mercator-Legislation ]]//
-Homepage of Mercator-Legislation. It provides information on minority languages and legislation in the EU.
-//[[http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/langmin_en.html|European Commission ]]//
-At the website of the European Commission information is given on the EU’s support for regional or minority languages.
-//[[http://conventions.coe.int|Council of Europe ]]//
-//European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages// (1992) and //Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities// (1995). European Treaty Series ETS 148 and 157, Strasbourg.
-//[[http://www.eurydice.org|Eurydice ]]//
-Eurydice is the information network on education in Europe. The sites provides information on all European education systems and education policies.
-//[[http://www.eblul.org|EBLUL ]]//
-Homepage of the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages. This site provides general information on lesser used languages as well as on projects, publications, and events.
-//[[http://www.eurolang.net|Eurolang ]]//
-Eurolang provides coverage of the concerns felt in the minority language regions in the European Union. Eurolang is EBLUL’s news service.